๐แแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แ แขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แซแตแแแแ แ แฒแต แตแจแแฝ แ แแจแซแจแฅ แแฐ แตแซ แ แตแแฃ!
๐ทแขแฎแ www.aapdb.gov.et แจแฐแฐแ แจแจแฐแแแ แจแแแแตแซแแฃ แแ แ แซแแ แแฃแ แแฅแณแ แแแ แฅแแฒแแ แจแฐแแซแฉ แจแฅแแตแ แแญแแญ แแคแถแฝแ แแจแ แฐแฐแซแฝ แแแตแจแแฃ แแแตแฐแแแ แ แจแฐแแแ แ แแแแ แแแ แแแซแต แจแแซแตแฝแ แฐแจแแแ แจแ แ แ แตแจแแฝ แ แแตแแแต แ แแฌแ แฅแแต แ แญแ แ แแจแซแจแฅ แแฐ แตแซ แ แตแแฅแทแแกแก
แ แขแฎแ แจแจแฐแ แฅแแตแคแแจแแ แ แ แ แแแฃแณ แแญแ แแญแตแ แขแฎ แแแ แ แถ แแณแธแ แแญแ แฅแแฐแฐแแแฉแต แแจแฐแแ แแแชแแฝ แฅแป แณแญแแ แแ แแแ แแ แแ แ แจแฐแฅ แฃแแ แต แแแ แจแขแฎแแ แแฉ แแฉ แแจแแแฝ แแแแต แจแแซแตแฝแแ แจแแแ แตแแ แซแ แ แแแแ แ แตแฐแซแจแถแฝแ แฅแแ แแตแ แต แจแแซแตแฝแ แแฅแณแญแต แ แตแแแฐแ แญแญแญแฅ แแแแแ แฐแแแจแแแกแก
แ แถ แแณแธแ แจแจแฐแแ แขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แจแแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แแแแ แดแญแแแแแฝแ แ แแ แแ แ แแแแแต แฅแแฒแฐแฅ แจแฐแแแต แแญแ แจแแซแตแฐแณแตแญ แฒแตแฐแ แ แฐแจแแชแแต แ แแแแต แฐแแแ แตแฅแฅแฉแ แฅแซแแแ แฐ แแแแ แ แตแแแแ แแแกแก
แจแขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แฝ/แคแต แแแ แ แถ แแฉแ แ แฅแฐแ แ แ แฉแแธแ แจแจแฐแแ แตแแญแต แฒแฒ แตแแ แซ แจแแตแแ แแแแ แดแญแแแแแฝแ แ แแแแต แจแจแฐแแแ แฒแแแแฒแญ แแแจแแแตแฃ แแแแแ แฐแแณแณแชแแตแ แฐแแซแญแแต แฅแซแณแฐแแ แฅแแแแแ แฒแ แ แญแญแญแก แแ แต แฐแแแจแแแกแก
แ แญแญแญแฅ แฅแ แตแญแแฑ แแญ แจแ แฒแต แ แ แฃ แจแฐแ แ แตแฐแณแฐแญ แแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แแญแตแ แขแฎ แแแ แ แถ แแณแธแ แแญแแฃ แจแแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แฝ/แคแต แแแ แ แถ แฒแณแญ แฐแจแแฃ แจแขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แฝ/แคแต แแแ แ แถ แแฉแ แ แฅแฐแแฃ แจแแแฑแ แฐแแแต แณแญแฌแญแถแฌแต แณแญแฌแญแฐแฎแฝ แฐแแแฐแแแข
แญแ แตแจแแฝ แฐแจแแแ แ แ แ แ แแแฉ แ แถแตแต แแแแแฝ แจแฐแแฃแฆแตแ แจแ แแฅ แแแแแต แตแซ แ แแตแซแต แจแจแฐแแแ แจแแแต แแคแถแฝแฃ แณแแแ แแฎแแญแต แแคแถแฝแฃ แจแฎแชแฐแญ แแแถแฝแฃ แจแ แซแฃแข แแแตแ แจแแฐแจแฐ แแแต แแแ แตแซแแฝ แ แแตแฐแแแ แ แแ แณ แ แแแแฃแต แจแแต แจแ แซแ แ แ แญแญแถ แซแฐแญแแ แฐแฅแ แญแ แ แแแข
Via Addis Ababa City Plan and Development Bureaucracy
@etconp
๐ทแขแฎแ www.aapdb.gov.et แจแฐแฐแ แจแจแฐแแแ แจแแแแตแซแแฃ แแ แ แซแแ แแฃแ แแฅแณแ แแแ แฅแแฒแแ แจแฐแแซแฉ แจแฅแแตแ แแญแแญ แแคแถแฝแ แแจแ แฐแฐแซแฝ แแแตแจแแฃ แแแตแฐแแแ แ แจแฐแแแ แ แแแแ แแแ แแแซแต แจแแซแตแฝแ แฐแจแแแ แจแ แ แ แตแจแแฝ แ แแตแแแต แ แแฌแ แฅแแต แ แญแ แ แแจแซแจแฅ แแฐ แตแซ แ แตแแฅแทแแกแก
แ แขแฎแ แจแจแฐแ แฅแแตแคแแจแแ แ แ แ แแแฃแณ แแญแ แแญแตแ แขแฎ แแแ แ แถ แแณแธแ แแญแ แฅแแฐแฐแแแฉแต แแจแฐแแ แแแชแแฝ แฅแป แณแญแแ แแ แแแ แแ แแ แ แจแฐแฅ แฃแแ แต แแแ แจแขแฎแแ แแฉ แแฉ แแจแแแฝ แแแแต แจแแซแตแฝแแ แจแแแ แตแแ แซแ แ แแแแ แ แตแฐแซแจแถแฝแ แฅแแ แแตแ แต แจแแซแตแฝแ แแฅแณแญแต แ แตแแแฐแ แญแญแญแฅ แแแแแ แฐแแแจแแแกแก
แ แถ แแณแธแ แจแจแฐแแ แขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แจแแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แแแแ แดแญแแแแแฝแ แ แแ แแ แ แแแแแต แฅแแฒแฐแฅ แจแฐแแแต แแญแ แจแแซแตแฐแณแตแญ แฒแตแฐแ แ แฐแจแแชแแต แ แแแแต แฐแแแ แตแฅแฅแฉแ แฅแซแแแ แฐ แแแแ แ แตแแแแ แแแกแก
แจแขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แฝ/แคแต แแแ แ แถ แแฉแ แ แฅแฐแ แ แ แฉแแธแ แจแจแฐแแ แตแแญแต แฒแฒ แตแแ แซ แจแแตแแ แแแแ แดแญแแแแแฝแ แ แแแแต แจแจแฐแแแ แฒแแแแฒแญ แแแจแแแตแฃ แแแแแ แฐแแณแณแชแแตแ แฐแแซแญแแต แฅแซแณแฐแแ แฅแแแแแ แฒแ แ แญแญแญแก แแ แต แฐแแแจแแแกแก
แ แญแญแญแฅ แฅแ แตแญแแฑ แแญ แจแ แฒแต แ แ แฃ แจแฐแ แ แตแฐแณแฐแญ แแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แแญแตแ แขแฎ แแแ แ แถ แแณแธแ แแญแแฃ แจแแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แฝ/แคแต แแแ แ แถ แฒแณแญ แฐแจแแฃ แจแขแแฌแฝแแ แดแญแแแ แแแต แขแฎ แฝ/แคแต แแแ แ แถ แแฉแ แ แฅแฐแแฃ แจแแแฑแ แฐแแแต แณแญแฌแญแถแฌแต แณแญแฌแญแฐแฎแฝ แฐแแแฐแแแข
แญแ แตแจแแฝ แฐแจแแแ แ แ แ แ แแแฉ แ แถแตแต แแแแแฝ แจแฐแแฃแฆแตแ แจแ แแฅ แแแแแต แตแซ แ แแตแซแต แจแจแฐแแแ แจแแแต แแคแถแฝแฃ แณแแแ แแฎแแญแต แแคแถแฝแฃ แจแฎแชแฐแญ แแแถแฝแฃ แจแ แซแฃแข แแแตแ แจแแฐแจแฐ แแแต แแแ แตแซแแฝ แ แแตแฐแแแ แ แแ แณ แ แแแแฃแต แจแแต แจแ แซแ แ แ แญแญแถ แซแฐแญแแ แฐแฅแ แญแ แ แแแข
Via Addis Ababa City Plan and Development Bureaucracy
@etconp
โค3๐2
๐What is Asphalt Road Construction?
๐งAsphalt road construction: involves the use of asphalt, a mixture of aggregates, binder, and filler, to build and maintain roads, highways, and other pavement surfaces.
๐ทThe components of asphalt include aggregates, binder, and filler. Aggregates are the inert materials that provide strength and bulk to the asphalt mixture.
โบCommon aggregates used include crushed rock, sand, gravel, or slags.
The binder is the adhesive substance that holds the aggregates together, with bitumen being the most common binder used.
Fillers are fine materials that fill the gaps between the aggregates and binder, such as limestone dust, cement, or hydrated lime.
The asphalt mixture is created by combining the aggregates, binder, and filler in specific proportions. The mixture is then heated to a high temperature (around 300ยฐF) to facilitate mixing and application.
The asphalt road construction process typically involves several steps. First, the site is prepared by clearing the area, removing debris, and grading the surface. Next, a layer of compacted aggregate material is laid down to provide a stable base.
The heated asphalt mixture is then applied to the base course using a paver or spreader.
After the asphalt mixture is applied, it is compacted using rollers or compactors to achieve the desired density and smoothness. Finally, the surface is finished with a layer of asphalt emulsion or sealcoat to protect it from the elements.
Asphalt road construction is used for a wide range of applications, including highways and roads, parking areas, railway tracks, ports and airport runways, bicycle lanes and sidewalks, and playgrounds and sports areas.
Asphalt is a popular choice for road construction due to its durability, flexibility, and resistance to heavy traffic and harsh weather conditions.
@etconp
๐งAsphalt road construction: involves the use of asphalt, a mixture of aggregates, binder, and filler, to build and maintain roads, highways, and other pavement surfaces.
๐ทThe components of asphalt include aggregates, binder, and filler. Aggregates are the inert materials that provide strength and bulk to the asphalt mixture.
โบCommon aggregates used include crushed rock, sand, gravel, or slags.
The binder is the adhesive substance that holds the aggregates together, with bitumen being the most common binder used.
Fillers are fine materials that fill the gaps between the aggregates and binder, such as limestone dust, cement, or hydrated lime.
The asphalt mixture is created by combining the aggregates, binder, and filler in specific proportions. The mixture is then heated to a high temperature (around 300ยฐF) to facilitate mixing and application.
The asphalt road construction process typically involves several steps. First, the site is prepared by clearing the area, removing debris, and grading the surface. Next, a layer of compacted aggregate material is laid down to provide a stable base.
The heated asphalt mixture is then applied to the base course using a paver or spreader.
After the asphalt mixture is applied, it is compacted using rollers or compactors to achieve the desired density and smoothness. Finally, the surface is finished with a layer of asphalt emulsion or sealcoat to protect it from the elements.
Asphalt road construction is used for a wide range of applications, including highways and roads, parking areas, railway tracks, ports and airport runways, bicycle lanes and sidewalks, and playgrounds and sports areas.
Asphalt is a popular choice for road construction due to its durability, flexibility, and resistance to heavy traffic and harsh weather conditions.
@etconp
๐23โค2
แจแ แแแแแต แตแณแแณแญแต.pdf
544.4 KB
๐แ แจแฐแ แแแฃแณ แแแตแ แแฅแฅแญ แฝ/แคแต แจแแฐแก แ แแแแแถแฝแฃ แจแ แแแแแต แตแณแแณแญแถแฝแ แ
แตแ-แแแณแแฝ แจแแแ แญแ
แ PDF แ แแญแฐแ แญแแแจแฑ๐
https://t.me/ETCONp
@etconp
https://t.me/ETCONp
@etconp
๐11โค2
Intercon Construction Chemicals
๐ Authorized agent of MC (Conmix), Weber and SIMENTEK
โ Concrete Admixtures
โ Bonding Agents
โ Waterproofings
โ Concrete Repair, Grout
โ Tile Adhesive & Tile Joint Fillers
โ Wall Putty, Prime Coat, Rush Coat
โ Quartz, Contextra
โ Specialized paints (Thermal and Insulation Paints, Street and Playground Paints)
โ Floor hardener, Epoxy
โ Geotextiles, Geo-membranes and other construction chemicals and materials
Tel: 0961955555 or 0961955559
Address: Signal, around signal mall
๐ Authorized agent of MC (Conmix), Weber and SIMENTEK
โ Concrete Admixtures
โ Bonding Agents
โ Waterproofings
โ Concrete Repair, Grout
โ Tile Adhesive & Tile Joint Fillers
โ Wall Putty, Prime Coat, Rush Coat
โ Quartz, Contextra
โ Specialized paints (Thermal and Insulation Paints, Street and Playground Paints)
โ Floor hardener, Epoxy
โ Geotextiles, Geo-membranes and other construction chemicals and materials
Tel: 0961955555 or 0961955559
Address: Signal, around signal mall
๐8
๐Aggregate Size Categories
1. Fine Aggregates
Size: Particles smaller than 4.75 mm (passing through a 4.75 mm sieve).
Examples: Natural sand, crushed sand, stone dust.
Uses:
Fills voids between coarse aggregates.
Used in mortar, plaster, and fine finishing work.
Grading: Classified as Zone I, II, III, or IV (IS 383), with Zone I being coarser and Zone IV being finer.
---
2. Coarse Aggregates
Size: Particles larger than 4.75 mm but typically smaller than 80 mm.
Examples: Gravel, crushed stone, recycled concrete.
Uses:
Provide strength to concrete.
Used in structural concrete, pavements, and road base layers.
Grading: Classified into single-size aggregates (e.g., 20 mm or 40 mm) or graded aggregates (mixed sizes for better packing).
---
3. All-in Aggregates
Size: A combination of fine and coarse aggregates in a single mix.
Uses:
Simplifies construction processes.
Commonly used in low-strength concrete and unbound subbases.
---
Categorization Based on Origin
1. Natural Aggregates
Sourced from natural deposits like riverbeds, quarries, or sea beds.
Examples: River sand, gravel, crushed rock.
Advantage: Minimal processing.
2. Artificial Aggregates
Manufactured or processed materials.
Examples: Fly ash, slag aggregates, expanded clay.
Advantage: Tailored properties for specific applications.
3. Recycled Aggregates
Derived from demolished concrete, bricks, or asphalt.
Examples: Crushed concrete, asphalt millings.
Advantage: Eco-friendly and cost-effective.
---
Categorization Based on Density
1. Lightweight Aggregates
Density: Less than 1120 kg/mยณ.
Examples: Expanded clay, pumice, cinders.
Uses: Lightweight concrete for non-load-bearing applications.
2. Normal Weight Aggregates
Density: 1120โ1920 kg/mยณ.
Examples: Sand, gravel, crushed stone.
Uses: Standard concrete and structural works.
3. Heavyweight Aggregates
Density: Greater than 1920 kg/mยณ.
Examples: Barite, magnetite.
Uses: Radiation shielding, heavyweight concrete.
---
Categorization Based on Shape
1. Rounded Aggregates
Naturally worn particles (e.g., river gravel).
Advantage: Better workability.
Use: Decorative concrete.
2. Angular Aggregates
Irregular shapes with sharp edges (e.g., crushed stone).
Advantage: High interlocking and strength.
Use: Structural concrete.
3. Flaky Aggregates
Thin and elongated in shape.
Disadvantage: Reduces concrete strength.
Use: Limited applications.
4. Elongated Aggregates
Longer in one dimension.
Disadvantage: Poor workability.
Use: Rarely used alone.
---
Importance of Aggregate Size
1. Workability: Fine aggregates improve workability, while coarse aggregates reduce it.
2. Strength: Proper grading ensures maximum strength by reducing voids.
3. Durability: Large aggregates enhance durability in heavy-duty applications.
4. Economy: Graded aggregates reduce cement consumption.
---
For specific standards, refer to IS 383 (Indian Standard), ASTM C33 (American Standard), or BS EN 12620 (British Standard).
@etconp
1. Fine Aggregates
Size: Particles smaller than 4.75 mm (passing through a 4.75 mm sieve).
Examples: Natural sand, crushed sand, stone dust.
Uses:
Fills voids between coarse aggregates.
Used in mortar, plaster, and fine finishing work.
Grading: Classified as Zone I, II, III, or IV (IS 383), with Zone I being coarser and Zone IV being finer.
---
2. Coarse Aggregates
Size: Particles larger than 4.75 mm but typically smaller than 80 mm.
Examples: Gravel, crushed stone, recycled concrete.
Uses:
Provide strength to concrete.
Used in structural concrete, pavements, and road base layers.
Grading: Classified into single-size aggregates (e.g., 20 mm or 40 mm) or graded aggregates (mixed sizes for better packing).
---
3. All-in Aggregates
Size: A combination of fine and coarse aggregates in a single mix.
Uses:
Simplifies construction processes.
Commonly used in low-strength concrete and unbound subbases.
---
Categorization Based on Origin
1. Natural Aggregates
Sourced from natural deposits like riverbeds, quarries, or sea beds.
Examples: River sand, gravel, crushed rock.
Advantage: Minimal processing.
2. Artificial Aggregates
Manufactured or processed materials.
Examples: Fly ash, slag aggregates, expanded clay.
Advantage: Tailored properties for specific applications.
3. Recycled Aggregates
Derived from demolished concrete, bricks, or asphalt.
Examples: Crushed concrete, asphalt millings.
Advantage: Eco-friendly and cost-effective.
---
Categorization Based on Density
1. Lightweight Aggregates
Density: Less than 1120 kg/mยณ.
Examples: Expanded clay, pumice, cinders.
Uses: Lightweight concrete for non-load-bearing applications.
2. Normal Weight Aggregates
Density: 1120โ1920 kg/mยณ.
Examples: Sand, gravel, crushed stone.
Uses: Standard concrete and structural works.
3. Heavyweight Aggregates
Density: Greater than 1920 kg/mยณ.
Examples: Barite, magnetite.
Uses: Radiation shielding, heavyweight concrete.
---
Categorization Based on Shape
1. Rounded Aggregates
Naturally worn particles (e.g., river gravel).
Advantage: Better workability.
Use: Decorative concrete.
2. Angular Aggregates
Irregular shapes with sharp edges (e.g., crushed stone).
Advantage: High interlocking and strength.
Use: Structural concrete.
3. Flaky Aggregates
Thin and elongated in shape.
Disadvantage: Reduces concrete strength.
Use: Limited applications.
4. Elongated Aggregates
Longer in one dimension.
Disadvantage: Poor workability.
Use: Rarely used alone.
---
Importance of Aggregate Size
1. Workability: Fine aggregates improve workability, while coarse aggregates reduce it.
2. Strength: Proper grading ensures maximum strength by reducing voids.
3. Durability: Large aggregates enhance durability in heavy-duty applications.
4. Economy: Graded aggregates reduce cement consumption.
---
For specific standards, refer to IS 383 (Indian Standard), ASTM C33 (American Standard), or BS EN 12620 (British Standard).
@etconp
๐15โค6
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Our Services Include:
๐ป Civil 3D Full Tutorials (4K Video)
Tutorials with project files used throughout the video for hands-on learning.
๐ All Supporting Materials
Access materials, including PKT Files, Superelevation Excels, & ERA Manual XML, to streamline your design work.
๐ Girder Bridge Working Drawing Preparation
Complete working drawings for Girder Bridges, including all materials used in the tutorial, & the 3D model created in SketchUp.
๐ Highway Design Expertise
Professional highway design services
๐ Template Production & PKT Development Template creation & PKT development as per your project standards.
๐ Earthwork & Pavement Quantity Preparation
Earthwork & pavement quantity preparation to ensure precise cost estimation.
๐ Structural Working Drawing Preparation
Detailed structural working drawings Preparation
Connect with Us:
YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/@musfide
Telegram: https://t.me/musafide
WhatsApp: https://bit.ly/musfide
Call Us: +251 905 666 664
๐5๐4โค1๐ฅ1๐1
๐Concrete roads are a very expensive choice in the desert for several main reasons:
๐ซ1. The cost of the raw materials :
Concrete needs high-quality materials, such as cement that is resistant to salt, sand, and lime, which increases cost compared to asphalt roads.
๐ซ2. A special design to withstand desert conditions:
To ensure concrete resists cracking and corrosion due to heat and sand, expensive components such as fibers and chemical additives are added, as well as designing more complex extension spacers.
๐ซ3. Transport costs:
Desert project sites are often far from material sources, resulting in a significant increase in transportation costs.
๐ซ4. THE NEED FOR A STRONG FOUNDATION :
Sand soil in the desert requires a strong and stable foundation, which adds an extra cost to the preparatory work.
๐ซ5. Long term maintenance:
Although concrete roads last longer, the cost of maintaining them in a harsh desert environment is high due to the need to periodically address erosion and cracking.
๐ซ6. The cheaper alternatives:
Asphalt driveways are considered significantly less costly to build and maintain, making them the most common choice in desert areas, unless the need requires long-term infrastructure.
โญ๏ธHigh cost makes concrete roads a less attractive option in desert projects, unless the goal is to invest in an infrastructure that lasts for decades without the need for major changes.
@etconp
๐ซ1. The cost of the raw materials :
Concrete needs high-quality materials, such as cement that is resistant to salt, sand, and lime, which increases cost compared to asphalt roads.
๐ซ2. A special design to withstand desert conditions:
To ensure concrete resists cracking and corrosion due to heat and sand, expensive components such as fibers and chemical additives are added, as well as designing more complex extension spacers.
๐ซ3. Transport costs:
Desert project sites are often far from material sources, resulting in a significant increase in transportation costs.
๐ซ4. THE NEED FOR A STRONG FOUNDATION :
Sand soil in the desert requires a strong and stable foundation, which adds an extra cost to the preparatory work.
๐ซ5. Long term maintenance:
Although concrete roads last longer, the cost of maintaining them in a harsh desert environment is high due to the need to periodically address erosion and cracking.
๐ซ6. The cheaper alternatives:
Asphalt driveways are considered significantly less costly to build and maintain, making them the most common choice in desert areas, unless the need requires long-term infrastructure.
โญ๏ธHigh cost makes concrete roads a less attractive option in desert projects, unless the goal is to invest in an infrastructure that lasts for decades without the need for major changes.
@etconp
๐5
๐The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has specific standards for compaction degrees in road construction, ensuring optimal performance and durability. These standards typically vary depending on the layer type and material properties.
๐ซGeneral Guidelines:
* Subgrade: 95-98% of the maximum dry density (MDD) as determined by Standard Proctor or Modified Proctor test.
* Subbase: 95-98% of the MDD, similar to the subgrade.
* Base Course: 98-100% of the MDD, requiring higher compaction for load-bearing capacity.
* Capping Layer: 95-98% of the MDD, depending on the material used and its function within the pavement structure.
๐ซFactors Influencing Compaction Degree:
* Material Type: Different materials have varying compaction characteristics.
* Layer Thickness: Thicker layers may require more effort to achieve desired compaction.
* Moisture Content: Proper moisture content is crucial for optimal compaction.
* Equipment Type: The type of compaction equipment used can influence the achievable density.
* Traffic Load: Higher traffic loads may necessitate higher compaction degrees in lower layers.
Importance of Compaction:
* Stability: Adequate compaction provides stability and resistance to deformation under traffic loads.
* Durability: Well-compacted layers contribute to the overall durability of the pavement structure.
* Drainage: Proper compaction can improve drainage characteristics, reducing the risk of water damage.
* Uniformity: Consistent compaction ensures uniform support for the overlying layers.
โญ๏ธERA Standards:
For precise and up-to-date compaction requirements, it's essential to refer to the specific ERA standards and specifications applicable to the project.
These documents will provide detailed guidelines based on the latest research and industry best practices.
By adhering to these standards, road construction projects in Ethiopia can achieve high-quality pavements that are safe, durable, and resilient to the challenges of the local environment and traffic loads.
@etconp
๐ซGeneral Guidelines:
* Subgrade: 95-98% of the maximum dry density (MDD) as determined by Standard Proctor or Modified Proctor test.
* Subbase: 95-98% of the MDD, similar to the subgrade.
* Base Course: 98-100% of the MDD, requiring higher compaction for load-bearing capacity.
* Capping Layer: 95-98% of the MDD, depending on the material used and its function within the pavement structure.
๐ซFactors Influencing Compaction Degree:
* Material Type: Different materials have varying compaction characteristics.
* Layer Thickness: Thicker layers may require more effort to achieve desired compaction.
* Moisture Content: Proper moisture content is crucial for optimal compaction.
* Equipment Type: The type of compaction equipment used can influence the achievable density.
* Traffic Load: Higher traffic loads may necessitate higher compaction degrees in lower layers.
Importance of Compaction:
* Stability: Adequate compaction provides stability and resistance to deformation under traffic loads.
* Durability: Well-compacted layers contribute to the overall durability of the pavement structure.
* Drainage: Proper compaction can improve drainage characteristics, reducing the risk of water damage.
* Uniformity: Consistent compaction ensures uniform support for the overlying layers.
โญ๏ธERA Standards:
For precise and up-to-date compaction requirements, it's essential to refer to the specific ERA standards and specifications applicable to the project.
These documents will provide detailed guidelines based on the latest research and industry best practices.
By adhering to these standards, road construction projects in Ethiopia can achieve high-quality pavements that are safe, durable, and resilient to the challenges of the local environment and traffic loads.
@etconp
๐24โค1
๐๐ธแฐแแแแญ แฎแแแญแต/Dynamic compaction
โญ๏ธแ แแฆแดแญแแญ แแ แแตแตแ แฅแ แ แแญ แจแแแ แจแแฌแต แแปแปแซ แดแญแแญ แฒแแ แฐแซแ แ แแญแ แแแฅแแ แจแแซแแแแ แแแข
๐ทแญแ แ แจแตแแ แจแแณ แแญ แ แฐแฐแแแ แจแฃแต แญแฅแฐแต แแฐ แแฌแต แแแ แแญ แแฃแ แฒแแแฃ แฐแแแแญ แฐแฝแฅแ แจแแแแจแ แจแแญแแแณแแต แญแฅแฐแต (แจ15-40 แถแ) แจแฐแแฐแ แแแต (10-30 แแตแญ) แตแจแต แ แแฃแ แแ
๐ซแฅแแแ แฅแฅแ แแถแฝ แ แ แแญ แแญ แแแจแตแ แญแแฅแซแ แฃ แญแ แแแจแตแ แจแ แแฉ แ แ แแ แซแปแฝแฝแแแฃ แจแแแจแต แฐแ แแแแ แฅแตแจ 12 แแตแญ แฅแแแต แญแฐแญแณแแข
โบแญแ แ แญแฅแฐแต แแฐแแฐแ แแแซแต แ แฆแณแ/แณแญแฑ แแญ แฃแแ แจแแญแแญแ/Grid pattern แแญ แแฐแแฐแ แแแซแต แญแฃแแ
โนแแฐแฑ แจแแแฅแซแธแ แฅแซแแณแแฑ แแ แฅแฃแฅ แฆแณ แแญ แจแฐแแ แฉแต แ แปแซแแฝ แจแฅแซแแณแแฑ แแแแซ แ แแ แ แ แ แซแ แฐแแญแต แแดแชแซแ แญแแแแข
๐ฒแฅแ แแฝแก-
โบ1. แจแฐแแซแฉ แฐแซแ แจแ แแญ แ แญแแถแฝแ แจแแปแปแ แ แ แ แซแแ แแแ
โบ2. แจแแธแจแ แ แ แ แแจแแญ
โบ3. แจแแแฐ แดแตแแแแต
โบ4. แจแณแจแ แฐแแญแต แ แแญ แฅแ แแแแฝ แแ แแแตแฃ แจแแญแต แ แแแ แฅแ แแตแญแแต แญแจแแซแ
โบ5. แฅแแแต แจแแแธแ แแ แจแถแฝ แซแ
๐แฅแแ แแแฎ แแญแ แแแแ แฅแตแจแแฝแ แตแจแต แ แณแญแป แฆแณแแฝ แแญ แซแแแ แจแ แแญ แแแณ แแปแปแ แญแฝแแแข
@etconp
โญ๏ธแ แแฆแดแญแแญ แแ แแตแตแ แฅแ แ แแญ แจแแแ แจแแฌแต แแปแปแซ แดแญแแญ แฒแแ แฐแซแ แ แแญแ แแแฅแแ แจแแซแแแแ แแแข
๐ทแญแ แ แจแตแแ แจแแณ แแญ แ แฐแฐแแแ แจแฃแต แญแฅแฐแต แแฐ แแฌแต แแแ แแญ แแฃแ แฒแแแฃ แฐแแแแญ แฐแฝแฅแ แจแแแแจแ แจแแญแแแณแแต แญแฅแฐแต (แจ15-40 แถแ) แจแฐแแฐแ แแแต (10-30 แแตแญ) แตแจแต แ แแฃแ แแ
๐ซแฅแแแ แฅแฅแ แแถแฝ แ แ แแญ แแญ แแแจแตแ แญแแฅแซแ แฃ แญแ แแแจแตแ แจแ แแฉ แ แ แแ แซแปแฝแฝแแแฃ แจแแแจแต แฐแ แแแแ แฅแตแจ 12 แแตแญ แฅแแแต แญแฐแญแณแแข
โบแญแ แ แญแฅแฐแต แแฐแแฐแ แแแซแต แ แฆแณแ/แณแญแฑ แแญ แฃแแ แจแแญแแญแ/Grid pattern แแญ แแฐแแฐแ แแแซแต แญแฃแแ
โนแแฐแฑ แจแแแฅแซแธแ แฅแซแแณแแฑ แแ แฅแฃแฅ แฆแณ แแญ แจแฐแแ แฉแต แ แปแซแแฝ แจแฅแซแแณแแฑ แแแแซ แ แแ แ แ แ แซแ แฐแแญแต แแดแชแซแ แญแแแแข
๐ฒแฅแ แแฝแก-
โบ1. แจแฐแแซแฉ แฐแซแ แจแ แแญ แ แญแแถแฝแ แจแแปแปแ แ แ แ แซแแ แแแ
โบ2. แจแแธแจแ แ แ แ แแจแแญ
โบ3. แจแแแฐ แดแตแแแแต
โบ4. แจแณแจแ แฐแแญแต แ แแญ แฅแ แแแแฝ แแ แแแตแฃ แจแแญแต แ แแแ แฅแ แแตแญแแต แญแจแแซแ
โบ5. แฅแแแต แจแแแธแ แแ แจแถแฝ แซแ
๐แฅแแ แแแฎ แแญแ แแแแ แฅแตแจแแฝแ แตแจแต แ แณแญแป แฆแณแแฝ แแญ แซแแแ แจแ แแญ แแแณ แแปแปแ แญแฝแแแข
@etconp
๐13
#ADVERTISEMENTS
๐แแฉ แจ Interior Design แฅแ Software แตแแ แ แจแฐแญแฐแแฌแต แแญ
๐ 0984121839
๐แจแแณ
แฐแ - แฅแแต (แจ11:30-1:30)
๐แจแ แณแ แฅแ แฅแแต
แ แณแ แ แแต 3:00 - 6:00 แฃ แจแฐแแต 7:30-10:30
แฅแแต แ แแต 3:00 - 6:00 แฃ แจแฐแแต 7:30-10:30
โ แแแต แฃแแธแ แจแฉแแจแญแฒแฒ แแแ แซแ แ แ แญแญแดแญแถแฝ แจแแฐแฅ แแฉ แตแแ แแข
โ แญแ Course แตแ Interior Design, แแแ แซแแฆแตแ แแแแ แแฐแจแณแ แแแฎแฝ แจแแซแซแตแต แแ
โณ๏ธ แจแฎแญแฑ แแญแแฎแฝ
โ Fundamental of Interior Design
โ Archicad 3D For Interior Design
โ Rendering in Lumion
โณ๏ธ แ แฐแแฃแฃแ แแ 15, 000 ETB แ3 แแญ!
๐ 0984121839
๐ฅ
Telegram:- https://t.me/archidemyy
๐แแฉ แจ Interior Design แฅแ Software แตแแ แ แจแฐแญแฐแแฌแต แแญ
๐ 0984121839
๐แจแแณ
แฐแ - แฅแแต (แจ11:30-1:30)
๐แจแ แณแ แฅแ แฅแแต
แ แณแ แ แแต 3:00 - 6:00 แฃ แจแฐแแต 7:30-10:30
แฅแแต แ แแต 3:00 - 6:00 แฃ แจแฐแแต 7:30-10:30
โ แแแต แฃแแธแ แจแฉแแจแญแฒแฒ แแแ แซแ แ แ แญแญแดแญแถแฝ แจแแฐแฅ แแฉ แตแแ แแข
โ แญแ Course แตแ Interior Design, แแแ แซแแฆแตแ แแแแ แแฐแจแณแ แแแฎแฝ แจแแซแซแตแต แแ
โณ๏ธ แจแฎแญแฑ แแญแแฎแฝ
โ Fundamental of Interior Design
โ Archicad 3D For Interior Design
โ Rendering in Lumion
โณ๏ธ แ แฐแแฃแฃแ แแ 15, 000 ETB แ3 แแญ!
๐ 0984121839
๐ฅ
Telegram:- https://t.me/archidemyy
๐3๐2โค1
๐Pipe Frame Scaffolding
๐ทThis type of scaffolding is most commonly found on construction sites and is used to support workers and materials on various jobs.
---
โญ๏ธMain components of scaffolding:
1. Top Rail
Provides protection to prevent workers from falling down.
2. Mid Rail
Added as an extra safety measure next to the top handrail.
3. Toe Board
Prevents tools or materials from falling off the work platform.
4. Board
It is the work surface on which workers stand.
5. Post/Standard (Vertical Column):
The main post that carries the entire chassis.
6. Random Orthodontic Brackets (Random Orthodontic Brackets):
Enhances horizontal and vertical stability for the scaffold.
7. Holders/Transoms (Horizontal Defects):
Support panels and tie vertical columns together.
8. Couplers (Connectors):
Used to tie scaffolding pieces together strongly and safely.
9. Base Plate (Metal Base):
Vertical posts are placed to distribute lambs on the ground.
10. Sill/Sole Board (Wooden Base):
Used to reduce soil pressure and provide more stability.
11. Runners/Ledgers (Longitudinal Impact):
Attach long vertical columns for better stability
12. Self-closing strips):
Used to secure entrances and exits
13. Longitudinal ties
Stability is reinforced by scaffolding
14. Base lift/player lift (lower bracket): It provides extra support for the chassis below
@etconp
๐ทThis type of scaffolding is most commonly found on construction sites and is used to support workers and materials on various jobs.
---
โญ๏ธMain components of scaffolding:
1. Top Rail
Provides protection to prevent workers from falling down.
2. Mid Rail
Added as an extra safety measure next to the top handrail.
3. Toe Board
Prevents tools or materials from falling off the work platform.
4. Board
It is the work surface on which workers stand.
5. Post/Standard (Vertical Column):
The main post that carries the entire chassis.
6. Random Orthodontic Brackets (Random Orthodontic Brackets):
Enhances horizontal and vertical stability for the scaffold.
7. Holders/Transoms (Horizontal Defects):
Support panels and tie vertical columns together.
8. Couplers (Connectors):
Used to tie scaffolding pieces together strongly and safely.
9. Base Plate (Metal Base):
Vertical posts are placed to distribute lambs on the ground.
10. Sill/Sole Board (Wooden Base):
Used to reduce soil pressure and provide more stability.
11. Runners/Ledgers (Longitudinal Impact):
Attach long vertical columns for better stability
12. Self-closing strips):
Used to secure entrances and exits
13. Longitudinal ties
Stability is reinforced by scaffolding
14. Base lift/player lift (lower bracket): It provides extra support for the chassis below
@etconp
๐14โค2
๐What is the Difference Between Beam and Lintel ?
๐ทBeams and lintels are both horizontal structural members used in construction, but they serve distinct purposes and have some key differences:
๐ซBeams
โบFunction
* Primarily used to support vertical loads over long spans.
* Transfer loads from floors and roofs to columns and walls.
โบLocation:
* Typically run parallel to the length of the building.
* Can be found in various locations within the structure, including floors, roofs, and basements.
โบSpan:
* Generally have longer spans compared to lintels.
๐ซLintels
โบFunction:
* Specifically used to support the weight of masonry (bricks, stone, etc.) above openings like doors and windows.
* Transfer the load to the sidewalls of the opening.
โบLocation:
* Positioned horizontally above openings in walls.
โบSpan:
* Have shorter spans, typically spanning the width of an opening.
โ๏ธIn essence:
* All lintels are beams, but not all beams are lintels.
* Lintels are a specific type of beam with a specialized function and location within a structure.
@etconp
๐ทBeams and lintels are both horizontal structural members used in construction, but they serve distinct purposes and have some key differences:
๐ซBeams
โบFunction
* Primarily used to support vertical loads over long spans.
* Transfer loads from floors and roofs to columns and walls.
โบLocation:
* Typically run parallel to the length of the building.
* Can be found in various locations within the structure, including floors, roofs, and basements.
โบSpan:
* Generally have longer spans compared to lintels.
๐ซLintels
โบFunction:
* Specifically used to support the weight of masonry (bricks, stone, etc.) above openings like doors and windows.
* Transfer the load to the sidewalls of the opening.
โบLocation:
* Positioned horizontally above openings in walls.
โบSpan:
* Have shorter spans, typically spanning the width of an opening.
โ๏ธIn essence:
* All lintels are beams, but not all beams are lintels.
* Lintels are a specific type of beam with a specialized function and location within a structure.
@etconp
๐24โค4๐1
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Our Services Include:
๐ป Civil 3D Full Tutorials (4K Video)
Tutorials with project files used throughout the video for hands-on learning.
๐ All Supporting Materials
Access materials, including PKT Files, Superelevation Excels, & ERA Manual XML, to streamline your design work.
๐ Girder Bridge Working Drawing Preparation
Complete working drawings for Girder Bridges, including all materials used in the tutorial, & the 3D model created in SketchUp.
๐ Highway Design Expertise
Professional highway design services
๐ Template Production & PKT Development Template creation & PKT development as per your project standards.
๐ Earthwork & Pavement Quantity Preparation
Earthwork & pavement quantity preparation to ensure precise cost estimation.
๐ Structural Working Drawing Preparation
Detailed structural working drawings Preparation
Connect with Us:
YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/@musfide
Telegram: https://t.me/musafide
WhatsApp: https://bit.ly/musfide
Call Us: +251 905 666 664
๐4๐1
๐Calculating Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) of Coarse Aggregate for Base Course On Road Construction
๐ซUnderstanding MDD and OMC
๐ทBefore we delve into the steps, let's clarify what MDD and OMC signify:
* Maximum Dry Density (MDD): This is the highest density a soil can achieve in a controlled laboratory environment under specific compaction efforts.
* Optimum Moisture Content (OMC): This is the moisture content at which a soil reaches its maximum dry density under those same compaction efforts.
Why are MDD and OMC important?
* Achieving Adequate Compaction: By knowing the MDD and OMC, engineers can ensure that the soil used in the base course of a road is compacted to its maximum potential, leading to a more durable and stable road structure.
* Preventing Over-Saturation: Compacting soil that is too wet can lead to excessive water content, which can weaken the soil and reduce its load-bearing capacity.
* Ensuring Proper Drainage: If the soil is too dry, it can be difficult to compact properly, and it may not be able to effectively drain water, which can lead to frost heave and other problems.
Steps to Determine MDD and OMC
The standard method for determining MDD and OMC is the Proctor Compaction Test. Here's a simplified overview of the process:
* Sample Preparation: A representative soil sample is collected and prepared according to standard laboratory procedures.
* Moisture Content Determination: A portion of the soil sample is oven-dried to determine its natural moisture content.
* Compaction: The remaining soil sample is divided into several portions, each with a different moisture content. Each portion is placed in a cylindrical mold and compacted using a standardized hammer and number of blows.
* Bulk Density Calculation: The weight and volume of each compacted soil sample are measured to calculate its bulk density.
* Dry Density Calculation: The bulk density is then converted to dry density by accounting for the moisture content.
* Plotting the Compaction Curve: The dry density values are plotted against their corresponding moisture contents to create a compaction curve.
* Determining MDD and OMC: The peak of the compaction curve represents the maximum dry density (MDD), and the corresponding moisture content at this peak is the optimum moisture content (OMC).
Visual Representation:
Key Considerations for Coarse Aggregates:
* Modified Proctor Test: For coarse-grained materials like those used in base courses, the Modified Proctor test is typically used, which involves a heavier hammer and more blows than the Standard Proctor test.
* Field Compaction: The MDD and OMC values obtained from the laboratory test serve as targets for field compaction. Field density tests are performed to ensure that the actual compaction achieved in the field meets the specified requirements.
โบBy following these steps and understanding the significance of MDD and OMC, engineers can ensure that the base course of a road is constructed with the optimal moisture content and maximum density, leading to a more durable and long-lasting pavement structure.
@etconp
๐ซUnderstanding MDD and OMC
๐ทBefore we delve into the steps, let's clarify what MDD and OMC signify:
* Maximum Dry Density (MDD): This is the highest density a soil can achieve in a controlled laboratory environment under specific compaction efforts.
* Optimum Moisture Content (OMC): This is the moisture content at which a soil reaches its maximum dry density under those same compaction efforts.
Why are MDD and OMC important?
* Achieving Adequate Compaction: By knowing the MDD and OMC, engineers can ensure that the soil used in the base course of a road is compacted to its maximum potential, leading to a more durable and stable road structure.
* Preventing Over-Saturation: Compacting soil that is too wet can lead to excessive water content, which can weaken the soil and reduce its load-bearing capacity.
* Ensuring Proper Drainage: If the soil is too dry, it can be difficult to compact properly, and it may not be able to effectively drain water, which can lead to frost heave and other problems.
Steps to Determine MDD and OMC
The standard method for determining MDD and OMC is the Proctor Compaction Test. Here's a simplified overview of the process:
* Sample Preparation: A representative soil sample is collected and prepared according to standard laboratory procedures.
* Moisture Content Determination: A portion of the soil sample is oven-dried to determine its natural moisture content.
* Compaction: The remaining soil sample is divided into several portions, each with a different moisture content. Each portion is placed in a cylindrical mold and compacted using a standardized hammer and number of blows.
* Bulk Density Calculation: The weight and volume of each compacted soil sample are measured to calculate its bulk density.
* Dry Density Calculation: The bulk density is then converted to dry density by accounting for the moisture content.
* Plotting the Compaction Curve: The dry density values are plotted against their corresponding moisture contents to create a compaction curve.
* Determining MDD and OMC: The peak of the compaction curve represents the maximum dry density (MDD), and the corresponding moisture content at this peak is the optimum moisture content (OMC).
Visual Representation:
Key Considerations for Coarse Aggregates:
* Modified Proctor Test: For coarse-grained materials like those used in base courses, the Modified Proctor test is typically used, which involves a heavier hammer and more blows than the Standard Proctor test.
* Field Compaction: The MDD and OMC values obtained from the laboratory test serve as targets for field compaction. Field density tests are performed to ensure that the actual compaction achieved in the field meets the specified requirements.
โบBy following these steps and understanding the significance of MDD and OMC, engineers can ensure that the base course of a road is constructed with the optimal moisture content and maximum density, leading to a more durable and long-lasting pavement structure.
@etconp
๐22โค6
๐This type of test is conducted to accurately identify the location of buried pipes or cables to avoid damage during excavation or construction projects ๐๐๐
@etconp
@etconp
๐12
Ethio Construction Engineering
Photo
๐This type of test is conducted to accurately identify the location of buried pipes or cables to avoid damage during excavation or construction projects.
๐ซ1. Purpose of the Test:
To identify the locations of buried utilities such as electrical cables, pipelines, or drainage systems.
To minimize the risk of damage during excavation or construction.
To ensure the safety of the site and workers.
๐ซ2. Device Used:
The device in the image is a detection tool that likely operates using technologies such as electromagnetic frequencies or radio signals.
A signal is transmitted through the cable or pipe, and the device receives the signal to pinpoint its exact location.
๐ซ3. Procedures:
Identify the area to be inspected based on maps or engineering plans.
Operate the device and adjust the settings as needed to detect the type of material (e.g., metal or plastic).
Move the device over the target area to accurately locate the utilities.
๐ซ4. Results:
Coordinates (as shown in the image) are recorded to ensure accurate documentation of the location.
The results are used to adjust excavation or construction plans to avoid damaging cables or pipes.
๐ซ5. Importance:
Protects buried utilities and infrastructure.
Reduces repair costs caused by damages.
Ensures the safety of the team and equipment.
Via Yonatan Tadesse PMP
@etconp
๐ซ1. Purpose of the Test:
To identify the locations of buried utilities such as electrical cables, pipelines, or drainage systems.
To minimize the risk of damage during excavation or construction.
To ensure the safety of the site and workers.
๐ซ2. Device Used:
The device in the image is a detection tool that likely operates using technologies such as electromagnetic frequencies or radio signals.
A signal is transmitted through the cable or pipe, and the device receives the signal to pinpoint its exact location.
๐ซ3. Procedures:
Identify the area to be inspected based on maps or engineering plans.
Operate the device and adjust the settings as needed to detect the type of material (e.g., metal or plastic).
Move the device over the target area to accurately locate the utilities.
๐ซ4. Results:
Coordinates (as shown in the image) are recorded to ensure accurate documentation of the location.
The results are used to adjust excavation or construction plans to avoid damaging cables or pipes.
๐ซ5. Importance:
Protects buried utilities and infrastructure.
Reduces repair costs caused by damages.
Ensures the safety of the team and equipment.
Via Yonatan Tadesse PMP
@etconp
๐16โค4
๐แ แ แแแฝแ แตแแ แฐแ แฐแซแฝ แฐแดแต แแญ แปแญแ แฅแซแตแแแฃแฝ แจแแตแแแ แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซ
แ แ แแ แแ แต แ แปแญแ 200 แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซแแฝ แฃแแต
แปแญแ แ แณแฒแต แแ แซแแฝแ แ แแตแฐแแแ แฅแ แแแ แแฎแแญแถแฝแ แ แแแแฃแต แ แ แแ แแณแ แจแแตแแแ แตแ แ แฒแต แแฎแแญแต แฅแจแแแฃแฝ แตแแแแฝแกแก
แแแชแฑ แ แ แแแฝแ แแแ แ แฐแฃแแ แฐแ แฐแซแฝ แฐแดแต แแญ แ แแแแฑ แฐแแณแณแช แ แญแแจแแ แจแฐแฃแแแ แคแญแแญแต แฅแแ แแแตแจแ แฅแแ แตแแด แแแซแแฝแกแก
แ แซแต แตแแ แจแ แแฎแแแ แแแฐแญแฐแญแซแแฝแ แฅแ แแจแแซแแฝแ แญแญแแ แจแฐแฃแแ แจแฐแดแต แแญ แคแญแแญแต 900 แบ แตแฉแจแญ แแฌแต แแญ แซแจแ แจแแแแฐแแฝ แแตแฐแแแ (แฐแญแแแ) แญแญแแแกแก
แ แแฐแต 20 แตแฉแจแญ แชแแแฐแญ แตแแต แแแธแแ แซแแฐแ แจแฐแดแต แคแญแแญแต แจแแแแฎแแ แ แแ แ แแ แคแญแแญแต แฅแ แจแแแแ แซแแณแญ แคแญแแญแต แ แแฅแแฅ แแณแ แญแแแแกแก
แ แฐแจแแชแ แ แ แแต 80 แแแจแ แแแแฐแแฝแ แฅแ 540 แบ แ แจแซแแฝแ แจแแซแตแฐแแแต แ แ แ แญแแจแแแ แฐแฅแแแกแก
7.5 แแแจแ แฐแแฝ แ แแแฉแ แต แณแแซแ แ แฐแฐแ แจแฐแ แแญ แจแแแแฃแ แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซ แแแแ แฅแ แฐแกแฅ แฎแญแซ แซแแ แ แญแ แต แ แแปแญ แจแแฐแ แจแตแซแแตแแญแต แแแแชแซ แฅแแฐแแแ แญแ แ แแแกแก
แ แจแฐแแ แ100 แ แแณแต แซแแแแแ แจแณแแซแ แแฝแแข แคแญแแญแต แแ แญแซแณ แแ แแตแแแแซ แขแฐแจแแแตแ แ แแ แแญ แซแแตแ แฐแแ แแฝ แแญแ แฐแแฆแฝ แแตแฐแแแต แจแแฝแแ แต แ แ แ แแญ แฅแแฐแแญแแ แฒแคแแคแ แ แตแแฅแงแแกแก
แจแแฎแแญแฑ แแ แแแแฒแต แ แซแแ แแแฃแณแ แ แแ แแญ แฅแแฐแแแแฃแฑ แฅแแฒแแ แจแแธแแแ แฆแณ แตแแต แ แแปแญ แแตแฅแตแฅ แจแฎแแตแตแซแญแฝแ แ แจแณแแฝแ แขแแแแ แแณแซแฑ แฅแแฐแแญแแญ แฐแแแจแแแกแก
แคแญแแญแฑแ แแแแแฃแต แ 2003 แจแฆแณ แแจแฃ แฅแ แจแแณแซ แตแซ แจแฐแแแจ แขแแแ แแแฃแณแ แจแฐแแแจแ แจแฅแแต แ แแณแต แ แแต แแ แ แณแฒแต แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซแแฝ แจแปแญแ แจแ แชแฌแฝแ แฅแตแแต แแณแซ แแแ แ แซแ แแธแแข
แแแชแฑ แ แแชแซแ แ แแฅแแฅ แจแแแแฝแ แตแแ แจแ แจแญ แแแแฃ แแ แซ แแแจแ แแแแ แ แแแแต แแญ แแฝแข
แณแญแฒแแ แจแฐแฃแแ แจแคแแแ แแแฐแ แแแ แ แแฎแแแ แ 2019 แแ แแแแแต แญแแต แฒแแ แจแปแญแ แฃแแตแแฃแแต แแแชแฑ แจแ แจแญ แตแซแแตแแญแต แแแแตแ แแแแแต แ 2035 450 แ แจแญ แแจแแซแแฝ แฅแแฐแแซแตแแแแต แฐแแแจแแแข
@etconp
แ แ แแ แแ แต แ แปแญแ 200 แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซแแฝ แฃแแต
แปแญแ แ แณแฒแต แแ แซแแฝแ แ แแตแฐแแแ แฅแ แแแ แแฎแแญแถแฝแ แ แแแแฃแต แ แ แแ แแณแ แจแแตแแแ แตแ แ แฒแต แแฎแแญแต แฅแจแแแฃแฝ แตแแแแฝแกแก
แแแชแฑ แ แ แแแฝแ แแแ แ แฐแฃแแ แฐแ แฐแซแฝ แฐแดแต แแญ แ แแแแฑ แฐแแณแณแช แ แญแแจแแ แจแฐแฃแแแ แคแญแแญแต แฅแแ แแแตแจแ แฅแแ แตแแด แแแซแแฝแกแก
แ แซแต แตแแ แจแ แแฎแแแ แแแฐแญแฐแญแซแแฝแ แฅแ แแจแแซแแฝแ แญแญแแ แจแฐแฃแแ แจแฐแดแต แแญ แคแญแแญแต 900 แบ แตแฉแจแญ แแฌแต แแญ แซแจแ แจแแแแฐแแฝ แแตแฐแแแ (แฐแญแแแ) แญแญแแแกแก
แ แแฐแต 20 แตแฉแจแญ แชแแแฐแญ แตแแต แแแธแแ แซแแฐแ แจแฐแดแต แคแญแแญแต แจแแแแฎแแ แ แแ แ แแ แคแญแแญแต แฅแ แจแแแแ แซแแณแญ แคแญแแญแต แ แแฅแแฅ แแณแ แญแแแแกแก
แ แฐแจแแชแ แ แ แแต 80 แแแจแ แแแแฐแแฝแ แฅแ 540 แบ แ แจแซแแฝแ แจแแซแตแฐแแแต แ แ แ แญแแจแแแ แฐแฅแแแกแก
7.5 แแแจแ แฐแแฝ แ แแแฉแ แต แณแแซแ แ แฐแฐแ แจแฐแ แแญ แจแแแแฃแ แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซ แแแแ แฅแ แฐแกแฅ แฎแญแซ แซแแ แ แญแ แต แ แแปแญ แจแแฐแ แจแตแซแแตแแญแต แแแแชแซ แฅแแฐแแแ แญแ แ แแแกแก
แ แจแฐแแ แ100 แ แแณแต แซแแแแแ แจแณแแซแ แแฝแแข แคแญแแญแต แแ แญแซแณ แแ แแตแแแแซ แขแฐแจแแแตแ แ แแ แแญ แซแแตแ แฐแแ แแฝ แแญแ แฐแแฆแฝ แแตแฐแแแต แจแแฝแแ แต แ แ แ แแญ แฅแแฐแแญแแ แฒแคแแคแ แ แตแแฅแงแแกแก
แจแแฎแแญแฑ แแ แแแแฒแต แ แซแแ แแแฃแณแ แ แแ แแญ แฅแแฐแแแแฃแฑ แฅแแฒแแ แจแแธแแแ แฆแณ แตแแต แ แแปแญ แแตแฅแตแฅ แจแฎแแตแตแซแญแฝแ แ แจแณแแฝแ แขแแแแ แแณแซแฑ แฅแแฐแแญแแญ แฐแแแจแแแกแก
แคแญแแญแฑแ แแแแแฃแต แ 2003 แจแฆแณ แแจแฃ แฅแ แจแแณแซ แตแซ แจแฐแแแจ แขแแแ แแแฃแณแ แจแฐแแแจแ แจแฅแแต แ แแณแต แ แแต แแ แ แณแฒแต แ แแฎแแแ แแจแแซแแฝ แจแปแญแ แจแ แชแฌแฝแ แฅแตแแต แแณแซ แแแ แ แซแ แแธแแข
แแแชแฑ แ แแชแซแ แ แแฅแแฅ แจแแแแฝแ แตแแ แจแ แจแญ แแแแฃ แแ แซ แแแจแ แแแแ แ แแแแต แแญ แแฝแข
แณแญแฒแแ แจแฐแฃแแ แจแคแแแ แแแฐแ แแแ แ แแฎแแแ แ 2019 แแ แแแแแต แญแแต แฒแแ แจแปแญแ แฃแแตแแฃแแต แแแชแฑ แจแ แจแญ แตแซแแตแแญแต แแแแตแ แแแแแต แ 2035 450 แ แจแญ แแจแแซแแฝ แฅแแฐแแซแตแแแแต แฐแแแจแแแข
@etconp
๐14