Ethio Construction Engineering
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đTypes of Concrete Defects - Causes, Prevention
đ§1. Cracking
Various reasons for cracking are improper mix design, insufficient curing, omission of expansion and contraction joints, use of high slump concrete mix, unsuitable sub-grade etc.
Prevention, use low water - cement ratio maximize the coarse aggregate in concrete mix, admixtures containing calcium chloride must be avoided.
đ§2. Crazing
Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map cracking is the formation of closely spaced shallow cracks in an uneven manner.
Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top surface of concrete due to high temperatures or if the mix contains excess water content or due to insufficient curing
Pattern cracking can be avoided by proper curing, by dampening the sub-grade to resist absorption of water from concrete, by providing protection to the surface from rapid temperature changes.
đ§3. Blistering & Delamintaion
Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of different sizes on concrete surface due to entrapped air under the finished concrete surface.
It may cause due to excessive vibration of concrete mix or presence of excess entrapped air in mix or due to improper finishing Delamination is also similar to blistering.
In this case also, top surface of concrete gets separated from underlying concrete.
Hardening of top layer of concrete before the hardening of underlying concrete will lead to delamination.
It can be prevented by using good proportion of ingredients in concrete mix, by covering the top surfacewhich reduces evaporation and using appropriate techniques for placing and finishing
đ§4. Dusting
Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of fine and loose powdered concrete on the hardened concrete by disintegration.
This happens due to the presence of excess amount of water in concrete To avoid dusting, use low slump concrete mix to obtain hard concrete surface with good wear resistance
đ§5. Curling
When a concrete slab is distorted into curved shape by upward or downward movement of edges or corners, it is called curling.
It occurs mainly due to the differences in moisture content or temperature between slab surface (top) and slab base (bottom).
To prevent curling, use low shrink concrete mix, provide control joints, provide heavy reinforcement at edges or provide edges with great thickness,
đ§6. Efflorescence
Efflorescence is the formation of deposits of salts on the concrete surface.
Formed salts generally white in color.
It can be prevented by using clean and pure water for mixing, using chemically ineffective aggregates etc.
And make sure that cement should not contain alkalis more than 1% of its weight
đ§7. Scaling and Spalling
Scaling and spalling, in both the cases concrete surface gets deteriorated and flaking of concrete occurs.
The main cause for this type of cases is penetration of water through concrete surface.
This makes steel gets corroded and spalling or scaling may occurs.
Via Yonatan Tadesse PMP
@etconp
đ§1. Cracking
Various reasons for cracking are improper mix design, insufficient curing, omission of expansion and contraction joints, use of high slump concrete mix, unsuitable sub-grade etc.
Prevention, use low water - cement ratio maximize the coarse aggregate in concrete mix, admixtures containing calcium chloride must be avoided.
đ§2. Crazing
Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map cracking is the formation of closely spaced shallow cracks in an uneven manner.
Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top surface of concrete due to high temperatures or if the mix contains excess water content or due to insufficient curing
Pattern cracking can be avoided by proper curing, by dampening the sub-grade to resist absorption of water from concrete, by providing protection to the surface from rapid temperature changes.
đ§3. Blistering & Delamintaion
Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of different sizes on concrete surface due to entrapped air under the finished concrete surface.
It may cause due to excessive vibration of concrete mix or presence of excess entrapped air in mix or due to improper finishing Delamination is also similar to blistering.
In this case also, top surface of concrete gets separated from underlying concrete.
Hardening of top layer of concrete before the hardening of underlying concrete will lead to delamination.
It can be prevented by using good proportion of ingredients in concrete mix, by covering the top surfacewhich reduces evaporation and using appropriate techniques for placing and finishing
đ§4. Dusting
Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of fine and loose powdered concrete on the hardened concrete by disintegration.
This happens due to the presence of excess amount of water in concrete To avoid dusting, use low slump concrete mix to obtain hard concrete surface with good wear resistance
đ§5. Curling
When a concrete slab is distorted into curved shape by upward or downward movement of edges or corners, it is called curling.
It occurs mainly due to the differences in moisture content or temperature between slab surface (top) and slab base (bottom).
To prevent curling, use low shrink concrete mix, provide control joints, provide heavy reinforcement at edges or provide edges with great thickness,
đ§6. Efflorescence
Efflorescence is the formation of deposits of salts on the concrete surface.
Formed salts generally white in color.
It can be prevented by using clean and pure water for mixing, using chemically ineffective aggregates etc.
And make sure that cement should not contain alkalis more than 1% of its weight
đ§7. Scaling and Spalling
Scaling and spalling, in both the cases concrete surface gets deteriorated and flaking of concrete occurs.
The main cause for this type of cases is penetration of water through concrete surface.
This makes steel gets corroded and spalling or scaling may occurs.
Via Yonatan Tadesse PMP
@etconp
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đ§á¨á á áááŚá˝ ጠá ááŽáááą áá°áľ ááľáĽ á áłá˛áľ á áá˝ ááá á¨áááŁáł á°ááŚá˝ áááŚá˝ á¨áá áá°áŚá˝á á¨ááá ááľá°áŤá¨áŤáá˝á áá áá áá˝ááá˘
đ§áá፠áááá¨áľ (late payment)
á¨áá ááŤáááŤáá˝ á á°áááś á áááŁáł áŽááľáŤáśá˝ ááľáĽ á áá°á á áá°áľ á¨áá°áłá°áŠ áá¸áᤠáŽááľáŤáá°áŠ á¨áááá¨áąá áááľá¤ áá¨ááἠáĽá á°á¨á᪠ááá áá¨ááἠáŤáľááááá˘
@etconp
âşá áááŁáł ááŽáááśá˝ ááľáĽ áŤáá á¨áá ááŤáá፠á¨áá á¨á áŁá¸á áááłáá˝ áĽáá á°á áľááłá á¨áááá á ááá á á áአáááááľ áŤáá ᤠáĽá áá á¨áá¨á°á°á á á°ááŤáŠ ááááŤáśá˝ áá áĽááá ááááŤáśá˝ á¨ááá áŠáľ á¨áŚáľáą áŁá áľááť á áŤááľ á á ááą ááá á áááą á ááŤá á¨áŚáľáąá ááĽáĽá áá á áá áááł á áá¨á°áą ááááŤáśá˝ ááá áá˝ááá˘
âď¸á ááłááľ áá áá á¨á°áŁá ááááŤáśá˝á á áĽááą ááá¨áľ áĽááááŤáá
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đ§áŤáá°á á á á¨áŚáł áááłáá˝ (unforeseen site condition)áĄ- áŤáá°á á á á¨ááŹáľ áááłáá˝ áĽáá° á¨á áá á ááá¨áááľáŁ áá á¨á ááá á¨ááŹáľ ááľáĽ áááááŤáá˝á ááááľ á áááŁáłá áá á¨áá°á ááá°áľ ááŤáľá¨áľá áá˝ááá˘
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đ§á¨áá˝á°á áĽá á¨áááľ áááá¨áľ (Delay in approval band permit) áŚáááŁáłá áĽááá áá á á áŤáŁá˘á áŁááľááŁááľ áá áłá áááśá˝ áĽá áá á°áá˝ áá á¨á°áá°á¨á° ááá˘áĽááá á áááááľ ááááá áááá¨áśá˝ á á°áá°á á¨ááŽáááą áááá˝ áá áŤááá áĽáá áľáá´áá˝á ááŤáá áá˝ááá˘
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đ§á á˛ááá ááľáĽ áŤá áľá á°áśá˝ ááá ááľááśá˝ (omission) áŚá áááŁáłá áá áľ á¨á°áááľ á ááá á˛ááá áá áŤá áľá á°áśá˝ ááá ááá°áśá˝ áĽáá°áá ááľáŤáľáŁ ááťáťáŤ ááľá¨á ááá á°á¨á᪠áá˝á°á ááŤáľáááá¸á áá˝ááᣠáá á áá° áááá¨áśá˝ áŤááŤáá˘
đ§á¨á á áááŚá˝ ጠá ááŽáááą áá°áľ ááľáĽ á áłá˛áľ á áá˝ ááá á¨áááŁáł á°ááŚá˝ áááŚá˝ á¨áá áá°áŚá˝á á¨ááá ááľá°áŤá¨áŤáá˝á áá áá áá˝ááá˘
đ§áá፠áááá¨áľ (late payment)
á¨áá ááŤáááŤáá˝ á á°áááś á áááŁáł áŽááľáŤáśá˝ ááľáĽ á áá°á á áá°áľ á¨áá°áłá°áŠ áá¸áᤠáŽááľáŤáá°áŠ á¨áááá¨áąá áááľá¤ áá¨ááἠáĽá á°á¨á᪠ááá áá¨ááἠáŤáľááááá˘
@etconp
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đWhy Crushed Stones Are Used in Rail Tracks
đˇCrushed stones play several pivotal roles when it comes to railway track laying, which adds to the rail network's safety, stability, and durability.
âşWhen the trains zoom on the tracks, little do you regard the base underneath; however, the ballast composed mainly of crushed stone keeps those tracks in their place.
đ§1. Stability and Support
âşCrushed stone can be used in railway tracks because it provides the beds with stability.
âşDue to their angular shape, the crushed stones interlock tightly, thus making a solid bed for supporting the weights of the tracks and trains.
âśď¸Because of this interlocking effect, the tracks cannot shift under pressure.
âśď¸They will remain aligned and level over time.
âśď¸This stability is particularly crucial when it comes to heavy trains traveling at very high speeds.
đ§2. Load Distribution
âśď¸Railway tracks have to bear enormous loads from the weight of trains that travel on them.
âśď¸Crushed stone distributes the load equally on the ground, and thus, the track is not set or warped.
âśď¸This even distribution helps avoid expensive repairs and maintenance and provides for a smoother ride for trains, which is important for safety.
đ§3. Drainage and Moisture Control
âśď¸Crushed stone also works well in terms of its drainage capabilities.
âśď¸Proper drainage averts the problem of water accumulating around the track and undermining its integrity.
âśď¸Stagnation of water around the tracks undermines the strength of the foundation, and deformation or even accidents concerning the track may occur.
âśď¸The gaps between the angular stones give enough room for the rainwater and moisture to pass freely through and around the tracks, thus leaving the foundation dry and intact.
đ§4. Cost-Effectiveness and Durability
âśď¸Besides serving its functional purpose, crushed stone is an economical choice in constructing tracks.
âśď¸It is readily available, moderately priced material compared to other construction options available to contractors.
âşMoreover, it is strong enough and can survive for several years without requiring frequent replacement, so it's cheap in the long term, too.
đ§5. Easy Maintenance
âśď¸Another advantage of using crushed stone in railway tracks is that they are very easy to maintain.
âśď¸If an adjustment or repair of the track needs to be done, the crushed stone can easily be shifted or refilled.
âşOver time, as the tracks have settled or shifted, the crushed stone ballast can be re-leveled, providing for the tracks to maintain alignment and functionality.
âď¸Conclusion
đIt's more than just a subordinate material to railway tracks, actually; it's the unsung hero of the rail system.
đ°But the crushed stone performs many other functions:
âšit stabilizes, distributes the loads, improves drainage, and makes maintenance easier.
âśď¸The tracks will not be in the best condition if the load-carrying crushed stones are not in good condition.
âşWhether it is a high-speed express train or a local freight service, crushed stone helps in keeping the railway at work with efficiency, thus becoming an indispensable part of modern rail infrastructure.
@etconp
đˇCrushed stones play several pivotal roles when it comes to railway track laying, which adds to the rail network's safety, stability, and durability.
âşWhen the trains zoom on the tracks, little do you regard the base underneath; however, the ballast composed mainly of crushed stone keeps those tracks in their place.
đ§1. Stability and Support
âşCrushed stone can be used in railway tracks because it provides the beds with stability.
âşDue to their angular shape, the crushed stones interlock tightly, thus making a solid bed for supporting the weights of the tracks and trains.
âśď¸Because of this interlocking effect, the tracks cannot shift under pressure.
âśď¸They will remain aligned and level over time.
âśď¸This stability is particularly crucial when it comes to heavy trains traveling at very high speeds.
đ§2. Load Distribution
âśď¸Railway tracks have to bear enormous loads from the weight of trains that travel on them.
âśď¸Crushed stone distributes the load equally on the ground, and thus, the track is not set or warped.
âśď¸This even distribution helps avoid expensive repairs and maintenance and provides for a smoother ride for trains, which is important for safety.
đ§3. Drainage and Moisture Control
âśď¸Crushed stone also works well in terms of its drainage capabilities.
âśď¸Proper drainage averts the problem of water accumulating around the track and undermining its integrity.
âśď¸Stagnation of water around the tracks undermines the strength of the foundation, and deformation or even accidents concerning the track may occur.
âśď¸The gaps between the angular stones give enough room for the rainwater and moisture to pass freely through and around the tracks, thus leaving the foundation dry and intact.
đ§4. Cost-Effectiveness and Durability
âśď¸Besides serving its functional purpose, crushed stone is an economical choice in constructing tracks.
âśď¸It is readily available, moderately priced material compared to other construction options available to contractors.
âşMoreover, it is strong enough and can survive for several years without requiring frequent replacement, so it's cheap in the long term, too.
đ§5. Easy Maintenance
âśď¸Another advantage of using crushed stone in railway tracks is that they are very easy to maintain.
âśď¸If an adjustment or repair of the track needs to be done, the crushed stone can easily be shifted or refilled.
âşOver time, as the tracks have settled or shifted, the crushed stone ballast can be re-leveled, providing for the tracks to maintain alignment and functionality.
âď¸Conclusion
đIt's more than just a subordinate material to railway tracks, actually; it's the unsung hero of the rail system.
đ°But the crushed stone performs many other functions:
âšit stabilizes, distributes the loads, improves drainage, and makes maintenance easier.
âśď¸The tracks will not be in the best condition if the load-carrying crushed stones are not in good condition.
âşWhether it is a high-speed express train or a local freight service, crushed stone helps in keeping the railway at work with efficiency, thus becoming an indispensable part of modern rail infrastructure.
@etconp
đ14âĄ1
đá¨áááááľ ááĽá¨á áááŁáłáŁ á á˛áľ á á áŁ
đŤá¨ á˘áľáŽáľáŤ á˘áá¨áľáľáááľ ááá˛ááᾠᨠáŽááľáśá áŞááľá´áľ á ááŞáŤ áá á á á˛áľ á á ᣠá¨áááᣠá¨áááááľ ááá¨á áááŁáłá á á°ááá¨á° á¨áááŁá˘áŤ á°ááľ á°ááŤááááá˘
âď¸á áááą áľáĽáĽá á¨áá°áŤá ááá¨á á˘áŽáá˝áŁ áááľ áľááŤáá˝ áĽáá˛áá á¨ááá፠áŚáłáá˝ áááŠáłáá˘
đá°ááąá á¨á°ááŤá¨ááľ á¨á˘áľáŽáľáŤ á˘áá¨áľáľáááľ ááá˛áá áá áľáŤ á áľááťá áśáá°á áĽáŠá áłáŹ áĽá ááľá°á á˛á¨áľáŞá˝ áŽá á¨áŽááľáśá áľáŤ á áľááťá áá¸áá˘
Via Ethiopian Investment Holdings
@etconp
đŤá¨ á˘áľáŽáľáŤ á˘áá¨áľáľáááľ ááá˛ááᾠᨠáŽááľáśá áŞááľá´áľ á ááŞáŤ áá á á á˛áľ á á ᣠá¨áááᣠá¨áááááľ ááá¨á áááŁáłá á á°ááá¨á° á¨áááŁá˘áŤ á°ááľ á°ááŤááááá˘
âď¸á áááą áľáĽáĽá á¨áá°áŤá ááá¨á á˘áŽáá˝áŁ áááľ áľááŤáá˝ áĽáá˛áá á¨ááá፠áŚáłáá˝ áááŠáłáá˘
đá°ááąá á¨á°ááŤá¨ááľ á¨á˘áľáŽáľáŤ á˘áá¨áľáľáááľ ááá˛áá áá áľáŤ á áľááťá áśáá°á áĽáŠá áłáŹ áĽá ááľá°á á˛á¨áľáŞá˝ áŽá á¨áŽááľáśá áľáŤ á áľááťá áá¸áá˘
Via Ethiopian Investment Holdings
@etconp
đ6
đá¨áŽáŞá°á áááľ áľáŤáá á ááĽááľ á áá ááá
ááš á¨áááŞáŤá á¨ááľáŞáŤ á¨á°áá áááá á ááĽáἠáá°á¨áá - á áś áŚáá˛á á áľáŞ
đ§á¨áŽáŞá°á áááąá á áá˝áľ ááá á áá¨ááá ááŽáááśá˝á á á°áŤááá¸á ááá áĽáŤáľ ááá ááá áĽá¨á°á°áŤ áĽáá°ááá á¨áá¨áŞ ááá ááá° ááľá°áłáľá á áś áŚáá˛á á áľáŞ áááá˘
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âśď¸á áś áŚáá˛á á ááá¨áłá áá áľ áĽáá°ááááľ á¨áŽáŞá°á áááľ ááŽáááśá˝á á á°áŤááá¸á ááá áĽáŤáľ ááá ááá áľáŤáá á áá˝áľ ááá á áá¨ááá áááááľ á°ááĽáŻáá˘
đˇá¨áŽáŞá°á áááą ááŽáááśá˝á á áá˝áľ ááá á¨áá¨ááá áááľ áĽáá˛áłáĽá á ááľá¨á ááľá á¨áá á¨áá á¨áľáŤ áŁá á á¨áá¨á¨ ááááá ááá° ááľá°áłáľáŠ áááááá˘
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âď¸áá á á¨á°áĄ ááŽáŞá°á áááą áĽáŤá°á¨áá áŤáá áľáá ááľáŤá ááš áááłá ááá áŠá á áá ááᤠá ááŁááá á áá áá ááŽáááśá˝á á á°áŤááá¸á ááá áĽáŤáľ ááá¨ááá áĽá¨á°á°áŤ áááá áááááá˘
âşá¨áŽáŞá°á áááľ áľáŤáá á á áá áá á áá ááá ááš á¨áááŞáŤ áĽá á¨ááľáŞáŤ á¨á°áá áááá á ááĽáἠáĽáá°áá°á¨áá á áś áŚáá˛á á°ááá¨ááá˘
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đ§á¨áŽáŞá°á áááąá á áá˝áľ ááá á áá¨ááá ááŽáááśá˝á á á°áŤááá¸á ááá áĽáŤáľ ááá ááá áĽá¨á°á°áŤ áĽáá°ááá á¨áá¨áŞ ááá ááá° ááľá°áłáľá á áś áŚáá˛á á áľáŞ áááá˘
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đˇá¨áŽáŞá°á áááą ááŽáááśá˝á á áá˝áľ ááá á¨áá¨ááá áááľ áĽáá˛áłáĽá á ááľá¨á ááľá á¨áá á¨áá á¨áľáŤ áŁá á á¨áá¨á¨ ááááá ááá° ááľá°áłáľáŠ áááááá˘
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âď¸áá á á¨á°áĄ ááŽáŞá°á áááą áĽáŤá°á¨áá áŤáá áľáá ááľáŤá ááš áááłá ááá áŠá á áá ááᤠá ááŁááá á áá áá ááŽáááśá˝á á á°áŤááá¸á ááá áĽáŤáľ ááá¨ááá áĽá¨á°á°áŤ áááá áááááá˘
âşá¨áŽáŞá°á áááľ áľáŤáá á á áá áá á áá ááá ááš á¨áááŞáŤ áĽá á¨ááľáŞáŤ á¨á°áá áááá á ááĽáἠáĽáá°áá°á¨áá á áś áŚáá˛á á°ááá¨ááá˘
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đExample: Calculate the weight of 100 m 16 mm ø bar.
đˇGiven-Here
D = 16 mm
L = 100 m
W = 16² x 100/162 = 158 kg
đŤIf we put 1 meter length for each diameter of steel bar in the formula then we will get the unit weight.
âş6 mm ø bar = 6² x 1/162 = 0.222 kg/m
âş8 mm ø bar = 8² x 1/162 = 0.395 kg/m
âş10mm ø bar = 10² x 1/162 = 0.617 kg/m
âş12mm ø bar = 12² x 1/162 = 0.888 kg/m
âş16mm ø bar = 16² x 1/162 = 1.580 kg/m
âş20mm ø bar = 20² x 1/162 = 2.469 kg/m
âď¸If we multiply the length of bars by this unit weight, we will get the total weight of steel bars. For example, the total weight of 1000 meter long 20mm ø steel bar is 1000 x 2.469 = 2469 kg.
@etconp
đˇGiven-Here
D = 16 mm
L = 100 m
W = 16² x 100/162 = 158 kg
đŤIf we put 1 meter length for each diameter of steel bar in the formula then we will get the unit weight.
âş6 mm ø bar = 6² x 1/162 = 0.222 kg/m
âş8 mm ø bar = 8² x 1/162 = 0.395 kg/m
âş10mm ø bar = 10² x 1/162 = 0.617 kg/m
âş12mm ø bar = 12² x 1/162 = 0.888 kg/m
âş16mm ø bar = 16² x 1/162 = 1.580 kg/m
âş20mm ø bar = 20² x 1/162 = 2.469 kg/m
âď¸If we multiply the length of bars by this unit weight, we will get the total weight of steel bars. For example, the total weight of 1000 meter long 20mm ø steel bar is 1000 x 2.469 = 2469 kg.
@etconp
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