🏷ይህ ቪድዮ ተጋበዙልን

👉ይህ አስገራሚ ማሽን ለ ግድግዳ ቀለም ለመቀባት የሚጠቅም ጊዜ፣ጉልበት እና ገንዘብ የሚቆጥብልን ድንቅ ማሽን ነው።

🚧This automatic wall Painting machine will save you a lot of time on the construction site.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

🏷ይህ ቪድዮ ተጋበዙልን

👉ይህ አስገራሚ ማሽን ለ ግድግዳ መለሰኛ የሚጠቅም ጊዜ፣ጉልበት እና ገንዘብ የሚቆጥብልን ማሽን ነው።

🚧This automatic wall plastering machine will save you a lot of time on the construction site.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉የውሃ ላይ ተንቀሳቃሽ ከተሞች ያውቃሉ?

🚧እነዚህ ከተሞች እንዴት እንደሚገነቡ በ ምስል የተደገፈ ገለፃ በ ሰሎሞን ቴክ ቶክ ተዘጋጅተዋል።

🚧ቪድዮ ለማየት ከዚህ ፅሁፍ አያይዘንላቹሀል 163.5 MB ስለሆነ WIFI ቢጠቀሙ ይመረጣል።

🎥ወይም በ YOUTUBE ለማየት ከታች ባለው ሊንክ ይከታተሉት

https://youtu.be/Z23Okb1i6-U

Via Tech Talk With Solomon

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉by the Eindhoven University of Technology, these 3D printed houses look like something you'd find on an alien world.⁠
⁠
🚧The Dutch university is set to construct around 5 of the buildings over the next five years and each one is almost completely made of concrete.⁠

#ConstructionTechnology
⁠
@etconp

👉How bridges are built over water?

🚧Bridges built over water are marvels of engineering no matter how shallow or deep the water may be But how exactly are these bridges built, particularly over deep water?

🚧It turns out there are three main techniques for the construction of such bridges and they are battered piles, cofferdams, and caissons.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉Low Cost Housing

➡️Low Cost Housing is a new concept which deals with effective budgeting and following of techniques which help in reducing the cost of construction through the use of locally available materials along with improved skills and technology without sacrificing the strength, performance and life of the structure.

▶️There is huge misconception that low cost housing is suitable for only sub standard works and they are constructed by utilizing cheap building materials of low quality.

▶️The fact is that Low cost housing is done by proper management of resources.

▶️Economy is also achieved by postponing finishing works or implementing them in phases.

🏷Building Cost

▶️The building construction cost can be divided into two parts namely Building

*⃣material cost : 65 to 70 %

*⃣Labour cost : 65 to 70 %

➡️Now in low cost housing, building material cost is less because we make use of the locally available materials and also the labour cost can be reduced by properly making the time schedule of our work.

➡️Cost of reduction is achieved by selection of more efficient material or by an improved design.

🏷Areas from where cost can be reduced are:-

🚧1) Reduce plinth area by using thinner wall concept.

*⃣Example 15 cm thick solid concrete block wall.

🚧2) Use locally available material in an innovative form like soil cement blocks in place of burnt brick.

🚧3) Use energy efficiency materials which consumes less energy like concrete block in place of burnt brick.

🚧4) Use environmentally friendly materials which are substitute for conventional building components like use R.C.C. Door and window frames in place of wooden frames.

🚧5) Preplan every component of a house and rationalize the design procedure for reducing the size of the component in the building.

🚧6) By planning each and every component of a house the wastage of materials due to demolition of the unplanned component of the house can be avoided.

🚧7) Each component of the house shall be checked whether if it’s necessary, if it is not necessary, then that component should not be used.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

 📌Sound proofing

🔸Sound Proof Construction Techniques

➡️Unwelcome sound transmission in a building is typically perceived as a noise problem by the occupants.

➡️With more and more people living closer together, soundproof construction techniques are increasingly utilized in reducing noise and providing quieter working and living environments.

🔸The Fundamentals of Noise

➡️As human population density continually increases, the desire for peaceful, noise free living and working environments increases commensurately.

➡️Noise in this instance is defined as a collection of one or more unwelcome sounds as perceived by the hearer.

➡️Humans generally have little capacity for blocking their sense of hearing, unlike vision which can be “turned off’ simply by closing eyelids So any unwelcome sound that reaches the ear is usually considered undesirable and given the label of “noise".

➡️Even the pure tones of a musical scale can be perceived as noise if heard by unappreciative ears, and drives the quest for knowledge on how to sound proof a room for example.

➡️Reducing noise, then, is an exercise in eliminating sound transmission through walls, floors, and ceilings and is the goal of sound proof construction and design.

🔸Sound Proof Design Principles

➡️There are three broad design categories for sound transmission control

🚧Increase sealed dead space:

▶️As sound travels, acoustic energy is dissipated and the intensity or “volume" decreases as the result.

▶️This is why we usually cannot hear someone speaking who is standing far away.

▶️However, over short distances it is also important to eliminate sound transmission through the air which can be achieved by eliminating open penetrations through walls, floors, and ceilings.

▶️This is especially effective to soundproof existing rooms.

🚧Increase mass

▶️Sound is generated by vibrating objects generating pressure waves in the air.

▶️Sound can also cause objects to vibrate and regenerate these pressure waves at a different location on the object, but will lose acoustic energy in the process.

▶️The more massive an object is, the more energy is required to vibrate, and less energy is available to regenerate a sound.

🚧Decrease vibratory response

▶️Objects that do not readily vibrate in response to audible sound will not Transmit that sound.

▶️This is why a pillow will muffle, or dampen, sounds instead of regenerating them.

▶️Some soundproof window treatments rely on this method.

🚧Applying Sound Proof Design to Construction Practice

▶️There are several ways to sound proof a structure.

▶️The question of how to soundproof a room can be addressed with some surprisingly simple construction techniques, starting with building a sound proof wall for example Commonly used dry wall, or sheet rock, is actually an effective material for sound proofing due to its high mass.

▶️However, for maximum effect changes to the mounting system should be employed.

▶️A dampening material, such as a bead of silicone caulk, should be used between the sheet rock panel and framing.

▶️If allowed by code, cutting the sill plate to create an air gap in the middle of the sill effectively stops it from transmitting sound.

▶️Alternating studs on either side of the split sill plate stops sound transmission through the studs from one side of the wall to the other.

▶️Otherwise, an additional layer of sheetrock spaced with acoustic caulk or foam will also create an acoustically dead air gap. Acoustic drywall, which incorporates a dampening material layer in the sheet rock itself, can also be used.

▶️Other high mass building materials, such as concrete, stucco, logs, mass loaded vinyl, etc. can also be utilized in cost effective sound proof methods especially on exterior walls.

▶️Commonly overlooked sources of sound transmitters in a building are windows, pipes, electrical conduits, and wall penetrations for utilities.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉A Tuned Mass Damper (TMD )

➡️A tuned mass damper (TMD), also known as a harmonic absorber or seismic damper, is a device mounted in structures to reduce the amplitude of mechanical vibrations.

➡️Their application can prevent discomfort, damage, or outright structural failure.

🚧They are frequently used in power transmission, automobiles, and buildings.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉EVOLUTION of WORLD'S TALLEST BUILDING

➡️A 3D Size Comparison of the World's Tallest Building as its changed throughout our history!

🚧Hope you will enjoy !

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

📌BENEFITS OF USING PLASTIC FORM WORKS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION


👉Plastic formworks in concrete construction are used to retain newly arranged concrete in place to provide adequate strength.

➡️Formworks facilitate to manage concrete efficiently and produce different types of shapes and forms.

➡️Various types of materials like timber, steel, and aluminum are applied to develop formworks. Plastic is considered as best for formworks in relation to other materials in terms of strength, cost-effectiveness, and adaptability.

➡️Sufficient time is required to develop the formworks.

➡️Formworks comprise 20 to 25% of the total cost of the structure. The security, cost, quality, and speed of a construction work mainly depend on formworks.

🏷Benefits of Plastic Formworks in Concrete Construction

▶️Plastic formworks provide various benefits like longevity, cost, and flexibility.

▶️Formworks consume huge labor force and total cost of the project. It is recommended that a formwork system should be cost-effective and assembled, disintegrated and managed smoothly by labor.

🏷The plastic formworks provide the following benefits to the concrete construction

⏺Grading of Aggregates

⏺Economical

⏺Labor-friendly

⏺Eco friendly

⏺Low maintenance

⏺Flexible

👉Plastic Formwork System

➡️Certain grade plastics are used to build up formworks.

➡️There are not any chemical reactions among poured material and the plastic form. No patch on the surface of the reinforce concrete element exists.

🚧Leakages

➡️Resist leakages with water or newly arranged concrete from various parts of the form by fitting different parts of the system accurately.

➡️Labor-friendly system
Plastic formworks are considered very labor-friendly system.

➡️It accommodates and plugs smoothly and significantly lightweight with regards to other types of formwork systems.

🚧Nailing and oiling

➡️Nailing and oiling plates are not necessary. Auto-leveling of plugging system can retain plates level automatically. It takes fewer time to install and disassemble.

🚧Cleaning

➡️Plastic forms can be cleansed with water without difficulty. Plastic forms can be broken due to handling in an inefficient manner as well as use of low voltage hot air gun for sealing.

➡️Plastic forms can be easily reprocessed and they are eco-friendly to minimize handling time and great re-usability index.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉ቻይናዊያን አንድ ባለ አምስት ፎቅ የትምህርት ቤት ሕንፃን ካለበት ስፍራ ነቅለው በሌላ ቦታ የተከሉበት ቴክኖሎጂ እና ድርጊት ዓለምን እያነጋገረ ነው፡፡

➡️በሻንጋይ ከተማ ይገኝ የነበረው በዕድሜው 85 ዓመት የሞላው ታሪካዊ ሕንፃ የቆመበት ስፍራ ለሌላ ልማት በመፈለጉ ነው ሕንፃው ሳይነካ እንዳለ ተነቅሎ በሌላ ቦታ የተተከለው፡፡

🚧ይህ ባለ አምስት ፎቅ ሕንፃ ከቦታ ቦታ 65 ሜትር እንዲጓዝ የተደረገውም ተራማጁ ማሽን በተባለ አዲስ የሮቦት ቴክኖሎጂ ነው፡፡

🚧ከሕንፃው መሰረት ስር 200 ያህል የሮቦት እግሮች ስለተገጠሙለት ሕንፃው ጉዳት ሳይደርስበት በተገጠመለት እግር ተጉዞ ከተፈለገው ቦታ እንዲቆም ተደርጓል፡፡

Via CNN

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉Oresund bridge Denmark, Sweden

➡️The oresund Bridge is a marvel of modern engineering.

🚧It consists of a combined road and rail line that runs for 8 kilometers, at which point it then transitions into an under water tunnel.

🚧In total, the bridge tunnel stretches 12 kilometers, connecting Denmark and Sweden.

🏷Construction of the oresund Bridge was an engineering marvel all it's own.

🚧It was part road bridge, part rail bridge, part tunnel, part rail line.

🚧The number of design constraints and moving parts to the process was absolutely stunning.

🚧As for the construction of the bridge supports, there are 4 main towers. These massive towers were poured in sections that were placed using specially built rigs.

#ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

👉Types of Culverts

🚧1.Pipe Culvert

⏺Circular, Elliptical, or Pipe Arch shape. Made of concrete, steel, or PVC. Used for small streams or drainage under roads.

⏺Easy to install and cost-effective.

🚧2.Box Culvert

⏺Rectangular or square in shape, made of RCC.

⏺Used for large discharges and urban drainage.

⏺Can carry road traffic directly above.

🚧3.Arch Culvert

⏺Arch-shaped structure made of stone masonry, brick, or RCC.

⏺Used for moderate flow and offers aesthetic appeal.

🚧4.Slab Culvert

⏺RCC slab over masonry or concrete abutments.

⏺Used for small spans (up to 3 m).

⏺Simple and economical for short crossings.

🚧5.Bridge Culvert

⏺Combination of bridge and culvert structure.

⏺Used for large spans and heavy flow areas.

⏺Acts both as a bridge and a culvert.

🚧6.Pipe Arch Culvert

⏺Arch-like pipe with a wide bottom, used when headroom is limited but wide flow is needed.

⏺Better hydraulic efficiency than circular pipes.

🚧7.Scupper Culvert

⏺Used to drain water from bridge decks or roads.

⏺Usually small openings along bridge sides.

#CulvertDesign #CivilEngineering #BridgeConstruction #RoadDrainage #PipeCulvert #BoxCulvert #ArchCulvert #SlabCulvert #BridgeCulvert #ConstructionTechnology #HydraulicStructure #WaterFlowControl #InfrastructureDesign #EngineeringStudy #sitework #civil #civilservice #civilrights #civilengineering

@etconp

👉What is Surveying?

- Process of measuring distances, angles, and elevations
- Determines relative positions of points on, above, or beneath the earth’s surface

📌 Types of Surveying
- Plane Surveying – assumes earth is flat for small areas
- Geodetic Surveying – accounts for earth’s curvature, used for large areas
- Topographic Surveying – maps natural & man-made features
- Construction Surveying – guides building layout and infrastructure works

📌 Surveying Instruments
- Total Station – electronic/optical instrument for angles & distances
- Level – measures elevation differences
- GPS – satellite-based positioning system

📌 Survey Methods
- Triangulation – uses triangles to determine positions
- Traversing – series of connected survey lines
- Levelling – determines height differences
- GPS Survey – uses satellite signals for accuracy
- Training – practical field learning for surveyors

Surveying is one of the most important processes in civil engineering. It helps engineers measure distances, angles, and elevations to determine the exact position of points on the earth’s surface.

Accurate surveying is essential for planning, designing, and constructing roads, buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure.

Different types of surveying such as Plane Surveying, Geodetic Surveying, Topographic Surveying, and Construction Surveying are used depending on the project requirements. Modern instruments like Total Station, Level, and GPS make surveying faster and more precise.

Common survey methods include Triangulation, Traversing, Levelling, and GPS Survey, which help engineers collect accurate data for successful construction projects.

#CivilEngineering
#Surveying
#SurveyEngineer
#TotalStation
#GPSsurvey
#Levelling
#ConstructionEngineering
#EngineeringKnowledge
#EngineeringStudents
#SiteEngineering
#EngineeringEducation
#Infrastructure
#ConstructionTechnology
#LearnCivilEngineering

@etconp

👉Structural Mechanics of Arch Bridge

Compression Force Flow

- The arch ring works entirely in compression.
- Loads applied on the deck are transferred through spandrels/verticals into the arch.
- The arch pushes outward at the abutments, creating horizontal thrust that must be resisted by strong foundations.

Load Transfer Path

- Live load (vehicles) → Bridge deck
- Deck → Spandrels/verticals
- Spandrels → Arch ring (compression)
- Arch ring → Abutments → Foundation

This path ensures stability by channeling forces into the ground.

Structural Stability

- Stable under compression: Arch bridges are inherently stable when loads are compressive.
- Unstable under tension: An inverted arch fails because tension forces dominate.
- Stability is achieved when vertical loads, horizontal thrust, and reactions are balanced.

Key Components

- Arch ring – carries compression.
- Bridge deck – supports traffic loads.
- Spandrels/verticals – transfer loads to arch.
- Abutments – resist thrust.
- Foundation – anchors the structure.

Force Polygon & Equilibrium

- Forces represented as polygons show balance of vertical loads, reactions, and thrust.
- Distributed loads are represented as \(W1, W2, … W_6\).
- Reactions include vertical supports and horizontal thrust.
- Stability requires closure of the force polygon.

Design Principles

1. Shape geometry optimization – Proper curve ensures efficient load transfer.
2. Material selection – Stone, concrete, or steel with high compressive strength.
3. Robust abutments – Must resist horizontal thrust and prevent sliding.

📌 Summary

Arch bridges are masterpieces of engineering where compression is the hero.

The arch ring channels loads into abutments, foundations resist thrust, and geometry ensures stability.

Their efficiency lies in using materials strong in compression and designing abutments that can withstand outward forces.

#CivilEngineering #ArchBridge #StructuralMechanics #BridgeDesign #CompressionForces #EngineeringInfographic #InfrastructureDevelopment #ConstructionTechnology

@etconp

🏗️ High-Rise Steel Building Structure

🔹 Overview

A high-rise building constructed with a steel structural system ensures high strength, durability, and seismic resistance. It allows efficient use of materials and faster construction compared to conventional methods.

🔹 Key Features

- Steel frame construction
- High strength-to-weight ratio
- Excellent seismic performance
- Faster construction time
- Flexible layout & design
- Long span capability

🔹 Materials Used

- Structural Steel (Fe 250 / Fe 345)
- High Strength Bolts
- Composite Floor Slab (Steel Deck + Concrete)
- Concrete (for footing and core)
- Reinforcement Steel (TMT Bars)

🔹 Structural System

- Moment Resisting Frame
- X-Bracing for lateral stability
- Composite slab for load transfer
- Rigid connections using bolts/welding
- Core wall for additional stability

🔹 Typical Dimensions

- Floor Plan: 36.0 m × 30.0 m grid
- Elevation: Approx. 72.0 m (15 floors)
- Section: Roof slab, floor slab, steel beams, columns, and concrete foundation

🔹 Loads Considered

- Dead Load (self-weight, finishes)
- Live Load (imposed load)
- Wind Load
- Seismic Load (earthquake)
- Snow Load (if applicable)

🔹 Design Standards

- IS 800:2007 (Steel Design)
- IS 1893 (Part 1) – Seismic Design
- IS 456:2000 (Concrete Design)

🔹 Advantages

- High strength & durability
- Earthquake resistant
- Reduced construction time
- Lightweight structure
- Easy modification & extension
- Cost-effective in the long run

📌 Suggested Hashtags

#CivilEngineering #StructuralDesign #HighRiseBuilding #SteelConstruction #SeismicDesign #EngineeringInnovation #BuildingTheFuture #CompositeStructures #constructiontechnology

@etconp

👉Types of Scaffolding Used in Construction

🫵Scaffolding is a temporary structure that provides safe access and support for workers and materials during construction, maintenance, and repair works.

Selecting the correct type of scaffolding improves safety, productivity, and efficiency on site.

1. Single Scaffolding

⏺Commonly used for brick masonry work.

⏺Has one row of vertical standards parallel to the wall.

⏺Economical and easy to erect.

2. Double Scaffolding

⏺Mainly used for stone masonry.

⏺Consists of two rows of standards for extra stability.

⏺Suitable where holes cannot be made in the wall.

3. Cantilever Scaffolding

⏺Supported by needles projecting from the structure.

⏺Used when ground support is not possible.

⏺Ideal near busy roads or weak soil.

4. Suspended Scaffolding

⏺Platform suspended by ropes or wire cables.

⏺Used for exterior painting, cleaning, glazing, and maintenance of high-rise buildings.

⏺Platform height can be adjusted.

5. Trestle Scaffolding

⏺Platform supported on movable ladders or trestles.

⏺Used for indoor works up to about 5 m height.

⏺Suitable for painting and repair work.

6. Steel Scaffolding

⏺Made of steel tubes and fittings.

⏺Strong, durable, and reusable.

⏺Widely used in commercial and industrial construction.

7. Patented Scaffolding

⏺Prefabricated system with special frames and couplers.

⏺Quick to assemble and dismantle.

⏺Provides high safety and efficiency.

8. Mobile (Rolling) Scaffolding

⏺Mounted on wheels with locking casters.

⏺Easy to move without dismantling.

⏺Best for maintenance and finishing works.

9. Ringlock Scaffolding

⏺Modular system with ring-and-wedge connections.

⏺High load capacity and rapid installation.

⏺Suitable for bridges, power plants, and large projects.

10. Cuplock Scaffolding

⏺Modular system with cup-and-blade locking mechanism.

⏺Fast erection with fewer loose components.

⏺Commonly used in industrial and infrastructure projects.

⚡️Important Safety Tips

✨Inspect scaffolding before every use.

✨Use proper guardrails, toe boards, and bracing.

✨Ensure firm and level foundations.

✨Never overload the scaffold platform.

✨Wear PPE and a full-body safety harness when required.

✨Use safe access such as ladders or stair towers.

⭐️Follow manufacturer guidelines and local safety regulations.

#Scaffolding #Construction #CivilEngineering #SiteEngineer #BuildingConstruction #ConstructionSafety #SteelScaffolding #Ringlock #Cuplock #BrickMasonry #StoneMasonry #Engineering #CivilTechTime #ConstructionTechnology #StructuralEngineering #SafetyFirst #EngineeringEducation #ConstructionSite #Infrastructure #LearnCivilEngineering@ETCONp

@etconp

🚜TYPES OF EXCAVATOR BUCKETS — CHOOSE THE RIGHT BUCKET FOR THE RIGHT JOB

🌟Excavator buckets are selected according to the material, digging conditions, required productivity, machine capacity, and type of work. Using the correct bucket can improve digging efficiency, reduce wear, and lower operating costs.

🔧 12 Common Excavator Bucket Types

1️⃣ Standard Bucket – General-purpose excavation in loose soil, sand and gravel.
2️⃣ Rock Bucket – Heavy-duty bucket for tough and abrasive materials.
3️⃣ Quarry Bucket – Reinforced bucket designed for quarrying, mining and heavy rock.
4️⃣ Tilt Bucket – Hydraulic tilting bucket for grading, leveling and precise finishing.
5️⃣ Skeleton Bucket – Used for screening and separating soil, rocks and demolition debris.
6️⃣ Clamshell Bucket – Opens and closes like a shell; useful for deep excavation, dredging and material handling.
7️⃣ Crusher Bucket – Crushes concrete, rocks and demolition waste directly on site.
8️⃣ Screening Bucket – Separates and screens materials using a rotating drum.
9️⃣ Ditch Bucket – Narrow bucket designed for ditching, trenching and drainage work.
🔟 Cleaning Bucket – Wide bucket for cleaning, finishing slopes, ditches and canals.
1️⃣1️⃣ Grab Bucket – Hydraulic grab for handling scrap, logs, rocks and bulk materials.
1️⃣2️⃣ Trapezoidal Bucket – Designed for efficient drainage channels, grading and backfilling.

📐 Key Bucket Dimensions

W = Width
H = Height
D = Depth

🏗️ How to Select the Right Bucket

Consider:

• Material type and ground conditions
• Excavation requirements
• Excavator size and lifting capacity
• Bucket size and weight
• Wear resistance and expected operating conditions
• Required digging, grading, screening or material-handling performance

☄Remember: The right bucket improves productivity, machine safety, component life and overall project efficiency.

📌 Save this guide for your next excavation project and share it with fellow civil engineers and construction professionals.

#CivilEngineering #Excavator #ExcavatorBucket #ConstructionEquipment #HeavyEquipment #Earthmoving #Construction #CivilConstruction #Mining #Quarrying #Dredging #Demolition #SiteEngineering #ConstructionTechnology #HeavyMachinery #EngineeringKnowledge #CivilEngineer #Earthwork #EquipmentSelection

@etconp

📐How to Mark an Offset Using a Total Station

🌟Angle & Distance Method

Offset marking with a Total Station is a precise surveying technique used to locate points away from a known reference or control line. It is based on simple right-angle triangle geometry and allows surveyors to accurately transfer design coordinates to the ground.

🔹 Key Components

Base distance (a): Distance measured along the reference line.

Offset distance (b): Perpendicular distance from the reference line to the required point.

Slope distance (c): Distance measured from the Total Station to the offset point.

Horizontal angle (θ): Angle turned from the established reference direction.

🔹 Required Data

✅ Known control/reference point or line
✅ Total Station properly set, centered and levelled
✅ Reference direction/back sight
✅ Required horizontal angle
✅ Required offset or measured distance

🔹 Basic Procedure

1. Set up the Total Station over a known control point and carefully center and level it.

2. Backsight a reference point and establish the correct orientation.

3. Turn the required horizontal angle from the reference line.

4. Enter or measure the required distance using EDM or stake-out mode.

5. Mark the calculated point accurately on the ground.

6. Recheck the angle and distance before fixing the final survey point.

🔹 Right-Angle Offset

For a perpendicular offset, the offset direction is set at 90° to the reference line. This method is commonly used for establishing building corners, road offsets and setting-out points.

🔹 Common Applications

🏗️ Building and structural setting-out
🛣️ Road centerline and edge offsets
📍 Column and footing positioning
🚰 Boundary and utility layouts
📐 Construction alignment and control points

Important: Always verify the Total Station's centering, levelling, orientation, prism/target setup and measurements before marking permanent points. Actual site setting-out should follow the approved survey drawings and project specifications.

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