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12th chemistry 🔥Chapter 11
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🤍CHEMICAL BOND🤍

Chemical bond is the attractive force which holds various constituents together in a molecule.

There are three types of chemical bonds: Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond, Co-ordinate Bond.

🔻Octet Rule:

Atoms form chemical bonds in order to complete their octet i.e. eight electrons in their valence shell.

❤Lewis Structures:

Pair of bonded electrons is by means of a ‘dash’ (-) usually called a ‘bond’.

Lone pairs or ‘non-bonded’ electrons are represented by ‘dots’.

Electrons present in the last shell of atoms are called valence electrons.

💠Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

🔻Species with odd number of electrons: NO, NO2,

🔻Incomplete octet for the central atom: LiCl, BeH2 and BCl3

🔻Expanded octet for the central atom: PF5, SF6 and H2SO4

🔻Formal Charge:

Formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and number of electrons assigned to that atoms in Lewis structure.

Formal charge = [Total number of valence electrons in the free atom ) - (Total number of lone pairs of electrons) -1/2(Total number of shared electrons i.e. bonding electrons)]

❤Resonance:

For molecules and ions showing resonance it is not possible to draw a single Lewis structure.

All the properties of such species can only be explained by two or more Lewis structures. Example: Resonance of O3

❤Ionic Bonding:

🔻Formation of Ionic Bond:
Formation of ionic bond takes place between a metal and a non-metal by transfer of electron.

Formation of gaseous cations

A(g) + I.E. → A+ (g) + e

❤Ionization Energy

Formation of gaseous anions

X(g) + e → X- (g) + E.A

❤Electron Affinity

Packing of ions of opposite charges to form ionic solids

A+ (g) + X- (g) →AX (s) +Energy

❤Lattice energy

Conditions required of formation of ionic bonds:

🔻Low I.E of cation.

🔻High E.A of anion.

🔻High lattice energy.

❤Covalent Bonding:

Covalent bond is formed between two non-metals by sharing of electrons.

🔻Electron pairs which participate in bonding are called bond pairs.

🔻Electron pairs which do not participate in bonding are called lone pairs.

There could be single, double or triple covalent bonds between two elements depending on the number of electrons being shared.

❤VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) Theory:

The shape of the molecule is determined by repulsions between all of the electron pairs present in the valence shell.

🔻Order of the repulsion: Lone pair.Lone pair > Lone pair. Bond pair > Bond pair. Bond pair.

🌡️Repulsion among the bond pairs is directly proportional to the bond order and electronegativity difference between the central atom and the other atoms.

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HORMONES & THEIR
FUNCTIONS


🔰 Growth Hormone (GH) Or Somatotropic Hormone (STH)
➖☞ Stimulates growth by stimulating protein synthesis.


🔰 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
➖☞ Stimulates thyroid secretion.


🔰 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
➖☞ Stimulates the production of of steroids by adrenal cortex.


🔰 GONADOTROPIC HORMONES
(i) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
➖☞ Stimulates gamate, production, secration of sex hormones, development of follicles.

(ii) Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone( ICSH) or Luteinising Hormone (LH)
➖☞ stimulates the leydig cells of testis and induces secretion of testosterone. stimulates development of Corpus luteum and ovulation in female.


🔰 LUTEOTROPIC HORMONE ( LTH) or PROLACTIN
➖☞ Stimulates the growth of mammary glands, lactation and maintenance of Corpus luteum.

🔰 MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE(MSH)
➖☞ Controls dispersal of melanophores , in man it is doubtful.

🔰 OXYTOCIN
➖☞ stimulates secretion of milk from mammary glands ; causes contraction of uterus at the time of child birth.

🔰 ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE ADH (Vasopressin)
➖☞ Stimulates the nephrons for reabsorption of water.
Stimulates contraction of smooth muscles , blood vessels and causes rise in blood pressure.

🔰 THYROXINE (T4) and TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
➖☞ Control metabolism , regulate body temperature by calorigenic action.

🔰 THYROCALCITONIN (TCT)
➖☞ Controls calcium (Ca++) level in blood , Check osteoporosis .

🔰 PARATHORMONE
➖☞ Maintains proper level of calcium and phosphorus by regulating renal action , thus , controlling calcium and phosphate amount in bones.

🔰 INSULIN (from β cells)
➖☞ Stimulates metabolism of carbohydrates. Influences the storage and utilization of sugar , inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis stimulates glycogenesis.

🔰 GLUCAGON (From a Cell)
➖☞ Influences the enzymatic action of phosphorylase , controlling glycogenolysis in tha liver and muscles ; increases the amount of sugar in blood.
Antagonistic to insulin , inhibits glycogenesis.

🔰 SOMATOSTATIN(SS)
➖☞ Suppresses the release of hormones from the pancrease and digestive track.

🔰 PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE
➖☞ Inhibits the release of digestive secretion of the pancrease.

🔰 ADRENALINE (Epinephrine) and NORADRENALINE (Norepinephrine)
➖☞ Regulates heart beat , blood pressure , sympathetic nervous system , contraction of involuntary muscles of lung , eyes , gut etc. , Production of blood , flow of saliva and sweat under emotional state.

🔰 ADRENOCORTICOIDS
➖☞ Regulate water and electrolyte balance, regulate fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism; stimulate development of male and female secondary sexual characters.

🔰 TESTOSTERONE (leydig's cells)
➖☞ Affects the normal development and functions of secondary sexual organs and characters in male.
➖☞ Stimulate formation of sperms

🔰 ESTROGEN (graafian follicles )
➖☞ Affects development and maintenance of secondary sexual characters in female.
➖☞ Stimulate maturation of ova.


🔰 PROGESTERONE ( ovary and Corpus luteum )
➖☞ Stimulates uterus for pregnancy, implantation and formation of placenta, also stimulates mammary glands.

🔰 RELAXIN ( Corpus luteum )
➖☞ relaxes ligaments of pelvic girdle at the time of birth.

🔰 HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN or HCG (placenta)
➖☞ Prevents disintegration of the Corpus luteum and maintains progesterone production.

🔰 Serotonin
➖☞ Helps in vasoconstriction of blood vessels.

🔰 MELATONIN
➖☞ Reduces quantity of FSH and LH, Acts as anti gonadotropic hormone.

🔰THYMOSIN
➖☞ Regulates growth, stimulates proliferation of lymphocytes and also hastens sexual maturity.

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